Ancient History – 2nd Year

Paper – I (Short Notes)

Unit I

Language/भाषा

  • Modern crowds are captivated by the allure of ancient Egyptian civilization when viewing treasures in museums.
  • Egyptian civilization is almost as old as Mesopotamian civilization, dating back to the fourth millennium B.C..
  • It is often compared to Mesopotamia because of its stability and serenity, unlike Mesopotamia, which was characterized by turmoil and tension.
  • Egyptians were generally peaceful for long periods, and their statuary and painted human figures often appear calm, as if they were enjoying a relaxed vacation.
  • Environmental factors largely explain the striking differences between Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations.
  • Mesopotamia’s climate was harsh, and the Tigris and Euphrates floods were irregular, making it difficult to rely on nature for sustenance.
  • The open plain of Mesopotamia lacked natural protection, so its inhabitants were always on military alert.
  • Egyptian civilization was centered around the Nile, a dependably life-enhancing river.
  • The Nile provided fertile soil for agriculture and flooded regularly every year, creating a predictable, benign environment.
  • Egypt’s geography, surrounded by deserts and the Red Sea, protected it from frequent foreign invasions.
  • The centrality of the Nile in Egyptian life is illustrated by their two words for travel: khed (downstream) and khent(upstream).
  • The Greek historian Herodotus famously described Egypt as “the gift of the Nile”.
  • Ancient Egyptian history is divided into six eras: the archaic period (c. 3100-2770 B.C.), Old Kingdom (c. 2770-2200 B.C.), first intermediate period (c. 2200-2050 B.C.), Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-1786 B.C.), second intermediate period (c. 1786-1560 B.C.), and New Kingdom (c. 1560-1087 B.C.).
  • Before the archaic period, the Egyptians made significant strides in creating an advanced civilization.
  • They began settled farming, used copper tools, and developed a system of writing known as hieroglyphic around 3100 B.C.
  • Experts are uncertain whether Egyptians created writing independently or if it was influenced by Mesopotamia.
  • Hieroglyphic is very different from Mesopotamian cuneiform, but its sudden appearance suggests possible influence from a foreign precedent.
  • Writing improved governmental efficiency and helped with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt.
  • Egyptian unification occurred around 3100 B.C., when the country was unified under a single government for better control of the Nile and irrigation projects.
  • The unification is attributed to Narmer, the first pharaoh, who brought all of Egypt under his control.
  • Pharaohs is a term derived from biblical usage, not from ancient Egypt itself.
  • The process of unification may have been gradual, but for about 400 years after 3100 B.C., two dynasties ruled over united Egypt.
  • The first two dynasties were succeeded by Zoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty and founder of the Old Kingdomaround 2770 B.C.
  • Zoser’s reign marked the beginning of a period of greater state power and royal absolutism, exemplified by the building of the first pyramid.
  • The power of the pharaoh was almost unlimited during the Old Kingdom; he was considered the child of the sun godand married his sister to maintain divine blood.
  • There was no separation between religious and political life; the pharaoh was both the king and the chief priest.
  • The government of the Old Kingdom was founded on a policy of peace.
  • The pharaoh had no standing army or national militia; local militias were commanded by civil officials and used for public works.
  • In case of invasion, local militias were assembled under the pharaoh’s command, but there was no permanent military force.
  • Egyptians of the Old Kingdom preferred to focus on their own development and avoid conflicts with other nations.
  • The peaceful attitude was due to Egypt’s protected geography, its fertile land, and the state’s cooperative nature, not exploitation.
  • The Old Kingdom ended around 2200 B.C. due to multiple causes.
  • Government revenues were exhausted from excessive spending on grand projects like pyramid-building.
  • Climatic disasters caused crop failures, worsening Egypt’s prosperity.
  • Provincial nobles usurped power, leading to the collapse of central authority.
  • The era that followed was called the first intermediate period, marked by anarchy and political chaos.
  • Rival principalities were created by nobles, with internal brigandage and invasion by desert tribes.
  • The first intermediate period ended around 2050 B.C. with the rise of the Eleventh Dynasty from Thebes (Upper Egypt), restoring centralized rule.
  • The Middle Kingdom followed, characterized by more social responsibility than the Old Kingdom.
  • The Eleventh Dynasty struggled against noble power, but the Twelfth Dynasty (c. 1990-1786 B.C.) ruled strongly through an alliance with the middle class.
  • This alliance kept the nobility in check and laid the foundation for prosperity.
  • Social justice and intellectual achievements marked the Twelfth Dynasty, replacing pyramid-building with public works like irrigation projects.
  • Religion became more democratic, focusing on moral conduct instead of wealth-based rituals.
  • The Twelfth Dynasty is considered Egypt’s classical or golden age.
  • Afterward, Egypt entered the second intermediate period (1786-1560 B.C.) marked by internal chaos and foreign invasion.
  • The Hyksos, a mixed group from western Asia, invaded around 1750 B.C., introducing horses and war chariots.
  • The Hyksos rule united Egyptians against a common enemy, leading to a revolt.
  • By about 1560 B.C., Ahmose expelled the Hyksos and founded the Eighteenth Dynasty, creating a more consolidatedregime.
  • The period following Ahmose is known as the New Kingdom or Empire (c. 1560-1087 B.C.).
  • The New Kingdom marked a shift from pacifism to imperialism.
  • Ahmose’s successors launched raids into Palestine and claimed sovereignty over Syria, expanding Egyptian territory.
  • They eventually controlled a vast domain from the Euphrates to the southern Nile but struggled to integrate conquered peoples.
  • Revolts in Syria and corruption weakened Egypt, leading to the loss of most conquered territories by the twelfth century B.C..
  • The government of the New Kingdom was more absolute, with the pharaoh relying on military power.
  • Nobles became courtiers or members of the royal bureaucracy, with the king holding supreme power.
  • The last great pharaoh, Ramses III (1182-1151 B.C.), was followed by weaker rulers.
  • By the end of the twelfth century, Egypt faced barbarian invasions and a decline in creative talent.
  • The growing power of the priests further weakened the pharaoh’s authority.
  • From the 10th century B.C. to the 8th century B.C., Egypt was ruled by a Libyan dynasty, followed by a brief Nubian rule.
  • In 671 B.C., the Assyrians conquered Egypt but ruled for only eight years.
  • After the collapse of Assyrian rule, Egypt regained independence, but in 525 B.C., it was conquered by Persians.
  • Egypt was absorbed into the Persian Empire, then ruled by Greeks and Romans.
  • Religion played a crucial role in ancient Egyptian life, influencing politics, literature, architecture, art, and daily conduct.
  • Egyptian religion evolved from polytheism to the earliest known form of monotheism, and then reverted to polytheism.
  • Early Egyptian religion was centered around local deities tied to specific cities or nature powers.
  • Unification of Egypt resulted in the fusion of these deities into the sun god Re.
  • Under Theban rulers of the Middle Kingdom, Re was merged with Amon (Amon-Re), who became the chief god of Thebes.
  • Osiris personified nature’s vegetative powers and the Nile, becoming an important deity after the unification.
  • The rivalry between Amon and Osiris became a central theme in Egyptian religion.
  • During the Old Kingdom, the worship of Re as the solar deity was dominant and served as the official religion.
  • Re was viewed as the god of righteousness, justice, and truth, maintaining the moral order of the universe.
  • Osiris originally symbolized the growth of vegetation and the Nile’s life-giving powers, but his myth evolved to represent immortality.
  • The myth of Osiris’ death and resurrection mirrored the seasonal cycle of the Nile, symbolizing death and rebirth.
  • The legend of Osiris later took on more emotional and spiritual significance, providing a promise of personal immortality for followers.
  • Osiris’ triumph over death and Horus’ victory over Set represented the ultimate triumph of good over evil.
  • Egyptian ideas of the afterlife developed in the Middle Kingdom, with beliefs in judgment by Osiris.
  • The dead were judged based on their deeds, with the worthy entering a paradise of eternal pleasures.
  • The Egyptian religion evolved into an ethical system, where people sought to live justly to please the gods.
  • In the later periods, superstition and magic gained prominence, diminishing the ethical aspects of religion.
  • The rise of the priests and their exploitation of fear led to the sale of magical charms and rituals for the dead.
  • The Book of the Dead compiled formulas and spells to aid the deceased in their journey to the afterlife.
  • Amenhotep IV, later known as Akhenaton, led a religious reform around 1375 B.C.
  • Akhenaton introduced monotheism, focusing on the worship of Aton, the physical sun, and made himself the living deity.
  • Akhenaton taught that Aton was the creator of the universe and the sustainer of the moral order.
  • Akhenaton’s reforms were unsuccessful, as the masses remained devoted to older gods.
  • Following Akhenaton, Tutankhamen restored the old gods, and Egyptian religion reverted to ritualism and magic.
  • Egyptian religion became centered on rituals and charms, with diminishing focus on the ethical principles taught by Aton.
  • The greatest intellectual accomplishments of the Egyptians lay in their system of writing and practical sciences.
  • Egyptian hieroglyphic writing emerged after cuneiform in Mesopotamia, possibly influenced by it.
  • Egyptian writing had three types of characters: pictographic, syllabic, and alphabetic.
  • The alphabetic characters (24 symbols) were an important innovation, separating consonant sounds.
  • The Egyptians did not fully develop an alphabetic system, which was later accomplished by the Phoenicians around 1400 B.C.
  • The Phoenician alphabet influenced the Hebrews, Arabs, Greeks, and Romans.
  • The Egyptian alphabetical system is considered the precursor to Western alphabets.
  • Egyptians used papyrus from the Nile delta for writing, which was cheap and lightweight compared to clay tablets.
  • Papyrus rolls became the standard writing material, used in Egypt and later adopted by ancient Greece and Rome.
  • Egyptians experimented with several forms of literature, including short stories, maxims, and political treatises.
  • Examples of Egyptian short stories include a shipwrecked sailor, a man disturbed by hippopotamuses, and a bawdy tale of a lustful woman.
  • Egyptian maxims were similar to the Book of Proverbs in the Old Testament, offering wisdom and urging justice.
  • The Plea of the Eloquent Peasant is an Egyptian political treatise advocating benevolent and just rulers.
  • While Egyptian literature may not rival Gilgamesh, the Hebrew Bible, or the Iliad and Odyssey, it has entertaining aspects.
  • In science, Egyptians focused on practical fields like astronomy, medicine, and mathematics.
  • The Egyptians developed a solar calendar around 2000 B.C., based on the alignment of the Sirius star with the sun.
  • This calendar helped predict the Nile floods and was more precise than the lunar calendars of Mesopotamia.
  • The Egyptian calendar influenced Julius Caesar’s calendar.
  • In medicine, Egyptians believed diseases had natural causes and focused on accurate diagnoses and effective treatments.
  • Egyptian diagnostic methods included pulse-taking and listening to the heartbeat.
  • Egyptian remedies included castor oil and some that may seem unusual today, like ostrich eggs for ulcers and a mixture for sweaty feet.
  • Some Egyptian medical remedies, passed to Greece, are still in use today.
  • In mathematics, Egyptians were pioneers in measurement and geometry.
  • They were the first to mark 360 degrees in a circle and to identify the pi ratio (circumference to diameter).
  • Egyptians calculated areas of triangles and volumes of pyramids, cylinders, and hemispheres.
  • These mathematical achievements were essential for their building projects, including the construction of the pyramids.
  • The pyramids are the most famous Egyptian visual monuments, serving as tombs for the pharaohs.
  • The earliest pyramid, the step-pyramid of Zoser, was built around 2770 B.C., marking a leap in scale compared to previous Egyptian structures.
  • Under Imhotep, 1 million tons of limestone were quarried and precisely placed to build the first pyramid, with a height of about 200 feet.
  • In a century, about 25 million tons of limestone were used to build a series of pyramids, with the pyramid of Khufu(Cheops) being the most famous, rising to 482 feet at a 52-degree angle.
  • The pyramid of Khufu was ranked as the first wonder by the Greeks.
  • Approximately 70,000 laborers were required to build a pyramid, most likely seasonal workers employed during the Nile’s flood stage.
  • The laborers likely worked year after year, building new pyramids after completing the last one.
  • Labor was not due to slavery, as Egypt did not practice slavery, but religious beliefs and group dynamics motivated workers.
  • Laborers believed their pharaohs were living gods and that building the pyramids ensured the pharaohs’ ascension to eternal life, benefiting society.
  • Teamwork in building the pyramids provided emotional and social rewards, as evidenced by marks on stones like “vigorous team” and “enduring team.”
  • Pyramid building eventually became recognized as a wasteful occupation, and the focus shifted to building templesduring the Middle Kingdom.
  • The temples of Karnak and Luxor were built during the New Kingdom, featuring massive columns and intricate carvings.
  • The temple at Karnak was 1,300 feet long and contained columns up to 70 feet high and 20 feet in diameter.
  • Egyptian sculpture and painting were primarily adjuncts to architecture, with colossal statues of pharaohs being common.
  • Statues of pharaohs ranged from 75 to 90 feet high, often with eyes inlaid with rock crystal.
  • Sculptures were rigid, with arms folded across the chest or fixed at the sides, and faces generally lacked emotional expression.
  • Anatomical distortion was common in Egyptian sculpture, with features exaggerated for symbolic reasons.
  • The Sphinx is a famous example of non-naturalistic sculpture, combining the head of a pharaoh with the body of a lion to symbolize strength and courage.
  • Egyptian relief sculptures featured profiles of heads, full-face eyes, and frontal torsos with profile legs.
  • Size of statues symbolized pharaohs’ power, and the rigidity and impassiveness expressed the timelessness and stability of the empire.
  • The anatomical distortions in art reflected a national ideal.
  • During Akhenaton’s reign, a brief artistic revolution occurred, breaking from traditional Egyptian artistic conventions.
  • Akhenaton’s new style was naturalistic, with portrait busts of him and Queen Nefertiti showing realistic detail, like Nefertiti’s haunting femininity.
  • Painting under Akhenaton emphasized movement, capturing scenes like a wild bull leaping, stag fleeing, and ducks swimming.
  • Despite the brief naturalistic shift, both Akhenaton’s religious reforms and the art produced during his reign were not lasting.
  • Egypt‘s population was divided into five classes: the royal family, priests, nobles, middle class (scribes, merchants, artisans, wealthy farmers), and peasants (the largest group).
  • During the New Kingdom, a sixth class of professional soldiers emerged, ranked just below the nobles.
  • Slaves, captured during this period, formed a seventh class, despised and forced to labor in quarries and on temple estates, but later integrated into the army and royal service.
  • Class positions shifted over time:
    • In the Old Kingdom, nobles and priests were supreme.
    • In the Middle Kingdom, commoners gained power, with merchants, artisans, and farmers benefiting from government concessions.
    • With the Empire, a new nobility of officials rose, and priests gained more influence.
  • Wealth disparity was vast, with nobles living in splendid villas with abundant food and luxuries, while the poor lived in mud-brick hovels with minimal furnishings.
  • Polygamy was allowed, but the monogamous family was the social norm.
  • Women were not entirely subordinated to men; they could own and inherit property, engage in business, and even rule (e.g., Queen Sobeknofru and Queen Hatshepsut).
  • Egypt’s economy was based on agriculture, producing wheat, barley, millet, vegetables, fruits, flax, and cotton.
  • The pharaoh theoretically owned the land, but it was mostly granted to individuals.
  • Commerce grew significantly after 2000 B.C., trading with Crete and the eastern Mediterranean, exporting gold, wheat, and linen, and importing silver, ivory, and lumber.
  • Manufacturing was important, with artisanal crafts and large factories producing pottery, glass, and textiles.
  • Business instruments such as accounting, bookkeeping, orders, receipts, property deeds, contracts, and wills were developed early on.
  • Copper and gold rings served as currency, the oldest known form of currency.
  • The economic system was collective, with most activities controlled by the government, but there was room for private initiative (merchants and craftsmen).
  • The government controlled quarries, mines, pyramids, temples, and royal estates, but more peasants became independent farmers over time.