The Palaeolithic Period, also known as the Old Stone Age, was the earliest period of human development, lasting approximately 8000 BC. The Palaeolithic Period is divided into two eras: the Lower Palaeolithic (from 40,000 BC to 8000 BC) and the Upper Palaeolithic (from 40,000 BC to 8000 BC). This age group used to live in caves and rock shelters near rivers and valleys.

Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age)500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE

• The term “Palaeolithic” is derived from the Greek words “palaeo” (old) and “lithic” (stone).
• As a result, the term Palaeolithic age refers to the prehistoric stone age.
• The old stone age or palaeolithic culture of India developed during the Pleistocene period, also known as the Ice Age, a geological period when the earth was covered in ice and the weather was so cold that human or plant life could not survive.
• However, the earliest species of man may have existed in the tropical region where ice melted.
• The old stone age or palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also according to the nature of the change of climate.
  • Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC
  • Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC
  • Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC

Characteristics

• The Indians were thought to be of the ‘Negrito’ race and lived in the open air, river valleys, caves, and rock shelters.
• They were foragers, eating wild fruits and vegetables and subsisting on hunting.
• There was no understanding of houses, pottery, or agriculture. It wasn’t until later that they discovered fire.
• Paintings from the upper palaeolithic period are evidence of art.
• Hand axes, choppers, blades, bruins, and scrapers were made from unpolished, rough stones.
• In India, palaeolithic men are also known as ‘Quartzite’ men because their stone tools were made of quartzite, a hard rock.
• People were unaware of agriculture or home construction, so life was not properly settled.
• It has been discovered that people survived by eating tree and fruit roots and living in caves and hills.
• The Palaeolithic, also known as the Old Stone Age, was a period in human evolution.
• Humans learned to make arms out of animal bones during this time period.
• As a result, the Palaeolithic period is the foundation of modern human civilization.

Palaeolithic Painting

Old Stone Age Indian sites (Palaeolithic Age)

Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC

• The Lower Palaeolithic Age was primarily found in Western Europe and Africa, and early humans led nomadic lives.
• Although no specific human group was responsible for the Lower Palaeolithic period, many scholars believe that it was contributed by Neanderthal-like Philanthropic men.
• It spans the majority of the Ice Age.
• Hand axes, choppers, and cleavers were used by hunters and food gatherers. The tools were crude and heavy.
• Bori in Maharashtra is one of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites.
• Limestone was also used in the manufacture of tools.
• Caves and rock shelters are examples of habitation sites.
• Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a significant location.

Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC

• The Middle Palaeolithic Age was primarily associated with the early form of man, Neanderthal, whose remains were frequently discovered in caves with evidence of fire use.
• They got the name from the Neander Valley (Germany).
• Neanderthal was a prehistoric hunter.
• The Middle Palaeolithic man was a scavenger, but there is little evidence of hunting and gathering. Before burial, the dead were painted.
• Flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers, and borers were among the tools used.
• The tools were more compact, lighter, and thinner.
• In comparison to other tools, the use of hand axes has decreased.

Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC

• The appearance of new flint industries and Homo Sapiens (modern type men) in the world context characterised the Upper Palaeolithic Age.
• This was the final period of the Palaeolithic Age, and it gave rise to Upper Palaeolithic culture.
• This period accounted for roughly one-tenth of the total Palaeolithic Period, but the primitive man made the most cultural progress in a short period of time.
• The culture has been dubbed the Osteodontokeratic culture, referring to tools made of bone, teeth, and horns.
• The upper palaeolithic period corresponded to the end of the ice age, when the climate became comparatively warmer and less humid.
• Homo sapiens appears. The period is distinguished by technological and tool innovation.
• There are numerous bone tools, such as needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing tools, and burintools.

Tools

• Tools dating back nearly 100,000 years have been discovered in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau, Kurnool, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Lower Palaeolithic people preferred to live near water sources because stone tools were plentiful in river valleys.
• The first stone tool fabrication began during this time period (including the earliest stone tools found today) and was known as the Oldowan tradition, which refers to a pattern of stone-tool manufacturing by Hominids (Homo habilis).
• The earliest tools were thought to be splintered stones called eoliths.
• Large and small scrapers, hammer stones, choppers, awls, and other tools were used to make these tools.
• Hand axes and cleavers were common tools among these early hunters and gatherers.
• Cleavers, choppers, and hand axes were the most common tools used during the Lower Palaeolithic era.
• These tools were primarily used to cut, dig, and skin prey.
• These tools were discovered in the Belan Valley of Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh), Didwana in Rajasthan, the Narmada Valley, and Bhimbetka (near Bhopal, M.P.).
• The Middle Palaeolithic Period tools were heavily reliant on flakes, which were used to make bores, points, and scrapers, among other things. During this time, there is also a crude pebble industry.
• The stones discovered were called microliths because they were so small. This period’s stone tools are of the flake tradition.
• For example, needles were used to sew furs and skins used as body coverings.
• Large flake blades, scrapers, and burins dominated Upper Palaeolithic Age tools.
• This man’s lifestyle was similar to that of Neanderthals and Homo erectus, and the tools he used were crude and unsophisticated at the time.
• There is evidence of the first appearance of bone artefacts and the first form of art in Africa.
• The first evidence of fishing can also be found in places like South Africa’s Blombos Cave through artefacts.
• The use of polished fine cutting edge tools, as well as mortars and pestles for grinding grain, emerged.

Palaeolithic Period – Tools

Social organisation

• Scientists know very little about the social organisation of the earliest Palaeolithic (Lower Palaeolithic) societies.
• Unlike Lower Palaeolithic and early Neolithic societies, Middle Palaeolithic societies were nomadic and comprised bands.
• According to some sources, most Middle and Upper Palaeolithic societies were possibly fundamentally egalitarian and engaged in organised violence between groups only rarely or never.
• Some Upper Palaeolithic societies may have had more complex and hierarchical organisation (such as tribes with a pronounced hierarchy and a somewhat formal division of labour) and may have engaged in endemic warfare.
• Women were responsible for gathering wild plants and firewood in Palaeolithic societies, while men were responsible for hunting and scavenging dead animals.
• Palaeolithic and Mesolithic groups, like most contemporary hunter-gatherer societies, most likely followed matrilineal and ambilineal descent patterns; patrilineal descent patterns were probably rarer than in the Neolithic.
• Palaeolithic hunters and gatherers ate a variety of vegetables (including tubers and roots), fruits, seeds (including nuts and wild grass seeds), and insects, as well as meat, fish, and shellfish.
• There is, however, little direct evidence of the proportions of plant and animal foods.

Conclusion

The Palaeolithic Period, also known as the Old Stone Age, was the period of human development that began around 8000 BC. The Palaeolithic period, also known as the Old Stone Age, was a stage in the evolution of humans. During this time, humans learned to make arms out of animal bones. As a result, the Palaeolithic period is regarded as the birthplace of modern human civilization.

The Belan Valley, located in the Vindhyan region of Uttar Pradesh, is one of the most significant prehistoric sites in India, offering an extensive and well-preserved cultural sequence from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic periods. This valley, which lies in the southern part of the Middle Ganga Plain, has been a center of human activity for thousands of years, providing valuable archaeological evidence about the technological, economic, and social transformations of prehistoric societies.

The importance of the Belan Valley lies in its continuity of cultural evolution, making it a crucial site for understanding the prehistoric past of the Indian subcontinent. Excavations at sites like Koldihwa, Chopani Mando, and Mahagara have provided detailed insights into how early humans adapted to changing climatic conditions, developed sophisticated tool-making techniques, and gradually transitioned from a hunting-gathering lifestyle to agriculture and domestication. The valley’s unique ecological setting, with fertile alluvial soil, abundant flora and fauna, and access to stone resources, played a key role in shaping the lifeways of its prehistoric inhabitants.

Geographical and Environmental Setting of the Belan Valley

The Belan River, a tributary of the Tons River, originates in the Vindhyan hills and flows through a diverse landscape that includes rocky outcrops, river terraces, and open plains. This varied topography created an ideal environment for early human occupation, providing shelter, water, and access to critical resources like stone for tool-making and animals for food.

During the Pleistocene epoch, the region experienced significant climatic fluctuations, alternating between humid and arid conditions. These changes influenced vegetation patterns, river dynamics, and faunal diversity, forcing human groups to constantly adapt. The presence of both open grasslands and dense forests provided a rich ecological zone where early humans could practice hunting, gathering, and eventually agriculture.

The archaeological evidence from the Belan Valley suggests that prehistoric communities occupied this region continuously, developing new technologies and cultural practices over time. The sequence of cultural development in the Belan Valley spans from the Lower Palaeolithic to the Neolithic, demonstrating a clear trajectory of human adaptation and innovation.

Lower Palaeolithic Culture in the Belan Valley

The earliest phase of human occupation in the Belan Valley dates back to the Lower Palaeolithic period (around 1.5 million to 100,000 years ago). This period is marked by the presence of Acheulean tools, including hand axes, cleavers, and choppers, which were primarily made of quartzite and sandstone. These tools, found at sites such as Koldihwa and Chopani Mando, indicate that early hominins, likely Homo erectus, used them for butchering animals, cutting wood, and processing plant materials.

The Acheulean culture in the Belan Valley shares similarities with other Lower Palaeolithic sites in India, such as those in the Son Valley and Narmada Valley. The tools from this period exhibit bifacial flaking techniques, where both sides of a stone were carefully shaped to create sharp edges. This suggests a gradual improvement in stone tool technology and a better understanding of raw material properties.

Although there is no definitive evidence of permanent settlements, the presence of repeated occupation layers suggests that Lower Palaeolithic groups followed a seasonal pattern of movement, likely in search of food and water. The presence of large mammalian fossils, including elephants, cattle, and deer, suggests that early humans in the Belan Valley relied on big-game hunting as a primary subsistence strategy.

Middle Palaeolithic Culture in the Belan Valley

The Middle Palaeolithic period (100,000–40,000 years ago) saw significant technological advancements, particularly in the production of flake tools, scrapers, points, and borers. This period is characterized by a shift from large bifacial tools to smaller, more refined stone tools, which allowed for greater efficiency in cutting, scraping, and processing animal hides.

Sites such as Chopani Mando and Mahagara have yielded numerous Middle Palaeolithic tools, indicating that human populations were becoming more specialized in their tool-making techniques. The Levallois technique, which involved preparing a stone core to produce uniform flakes, was widely used during this period. This suggests that early humans had developed a greater understanding of stone fracturing mechanics, allowing them to produce high-quality tools with minimal waste.

The Middle Palaeolithic people of the Belan Valley likely practiced a mixed subsistence strategy, combining hunting, gathering, and possibly early attempts at food storage. The presence of charred bones and hearths suggests that they were beginning to use controlled fire for cooking, warmth, and protection from predators.

Upper Palaeolithic Culture in the Belan Valley

The Upper Palaeolithic period (40,000–10,000 BCE) marks the beginning of more advanced tool-making traditions and cultural developments in the Belan Valley. The most significant innovation of this period was the introduction of microliths, which were small, geometrically-shaped stone tools that could be mounted on wooden or bone shafts to create composite tools such as arrows, spears, and sickles.

Excavations at sites like Mahagara and Chopani Mando have revealed a diverse range of microliths, including backed blades, burins, and points, indicating that Upper Palaeolithic groups had developed more specialized hunting and gathering techniques. The presence of rock art and symbolic artifacts suggests that these communities also engaged in ritualistic and artistic expressions, possibly indicating the emergence of complex social structures and belief systems.

The Upper Palaeolithic period in the Belan Valley also witnessed increasing population density and longer settlement durations, as indicated by deeper occupation layers at major archaeological sites. This suggests a gradual transition toward semi-permanent habitation, laying the foundation for the Neolithic way of life.

Neolithic Culture in the Belan Valley

The Neolithic period (around 7,000–2,000 BCE) represents the most significant cultural transformation in the Belan Valley, marking the transition from a hunting-gathering economy to food production and domestication. Sites like Koldihwa and Mahagara have provided conclusive evidence of early agriculture and animal husbandry, making the Belan Valley one of the earliest centers of agricultural development in the Indian subcontinent.

At Koldihwa, excavators discovered charred grains of rice (Oryza sativa), making it one of the oldest known sites for rice cultivation in South Asia. The presence of burnt clay structures, grinding stones, and pottery indicates that Neolithic communities had established permanent settlements, developed ceramic technology, and practiced food storage and processing.

Similarly, at Mahagara, evidence of cattle domestication has been found, with excavations revealing cattle hoof impressions on clay floors, suggesting that early farmers had begun managing livestock for milk, meat, and agricultural work. The shift from a foraging-based economy to a food-producing one had profound implications for social organization, population growth, and technological advancements in the Belan Valley.

Conclusion

The Belan Valley presents a continuous and uninterrupted cultural sequence from the Lower Palaeolithic to the Neolithic, providing invaluable insights into the prehistoric past of India. The region’s rich ecological setting, abundant natural resources, and favorable climatic conditions made it an ideal place for early human occupation and cultural evolution. The discovery of early agricultural practices and animal domestication at Koldihwa and Mahagara marks a significant milestone in the history of human civilization, highlighting the Belan Valley’s crucial role in the development of early farming societies in the Indian subcontinent.

The Son Valley, a major geographical and archaeological region in central India, has played a crucial role in understanding the Stone Age cultures of the Indian subcontinent. Located in the modern-day states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar, this valley is home to one of the most well-preserved sequences of prehistoric cultures, ranging from the Lower Paleolithic to the Mesolithic period. The valley, particularly around sites such as Bhimbetka, Paisra, Koldihwa, and Mahadaha, offers critical insights into the evolution of early human life, technological advancements, and cultural transformations over thousands of years.

Lower Paleolithic Culture (Early Stone Age) in the Son Valley

The Lower Paleolithic period, roughly spanning from 1.5 million years ago to 100,000 years ago, marks the earliest evidence of human occupation in the Son Valley. During this period, early hominins, likely Homo erectus, inhabited the region and developed basic stone tools for hunting and food processing. The primary tool types associated with this era are the Acheulean hand axes and cleavers, characteristic of the Soanian and Acheulean industries.

Archaeological evidence suggests that the Acheulean tradition in the Son Valley was influenced by similar industries in Africa and other parts of India, such as the Narmada and Chambal Valleys. Excavations at sites like Piprahwa, Salamatpur, and Bhimbetka have revealed a rich collection of bifacial tools made of quartzite, indicating that early hominins relied on locally available raw materials. These tools were primarily used for butchering animals, processing plant materials, and possibly digging.

The environment during the Lower Paleolithic was significantly different from today. The region was covered with dense forests and grasslands, providing abundant food resources. Fossil remains suggest the presence of prehistoric elephants, wild cattle, and large carnivores, which were likely hunted by early humans. Evidence of controlled fire usage in some sites indicates that early humans had begun experimenting with cooking and protection against predators.

Middle Paleolithic Culture (Middle Stone Age) in the Son Valley

The Middle Paleolithic period, which lasted from around 100,000 to 40,000 years ago, marks a significant technological and cultural transformation in the Son Valley. During this phase, early modern humans (Homo sapiens) began to appear, replacing earlier hominins. The dominant tool types of this period were flake tools, scrapers, and borers, which were produced using the Levallois and discoidal core techniques.

Excavations at sites such as Paisra (Bihar) and Morahana Pahar (Madhya Pradesh) have revealed the presence of well-crafted flake tools made from chert and quartzite, signifying an advancement in stone tool production. The Middle Paleolithic also witnessed the emergence of specialized tools designed for cutting, scraping, and hide processing, which suggests a shift towards a more diverse subsistence strategy.

Climatic conditions during this period were becoming more arid, leading to a gradual change in the flora and fauna. Hunter-gatherers in the Son Valley began adapting to these environmental changes by developing better hunting strategies and possibly engaging in seasonal migrations. The presence of hunting sites and temporary shelters indicates a more mobile lifestyle, as groups moved in search of water and food resources.

Upper Paleolithic Culture (Late Stone Age) in the Son Valley

The Upper Paleolithic period (40,000–10,000 BCE) is marked by an explosion of cultural, technological, and artistic developments. The tool industry of this period is dominated by microliths, which are small, finely crafted stone tools. Unlike their predecessors, Upper Paleolithic communities in the Son Valley used blades, burins, and backed tools, which were more efficient and versatile.

One of the most significant sites of this period is Bhimbetka, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Madhya Pradesh. Bhimbetka is renowned for its prehistoric rock art, which provides evidence of early symbolic thinking, religious beliefs, and artistic expression. The rock paintings, depicting hunting scenes, animals, and human figures, suggest that Upper Paleolithic people in the Son Valley had developed complex cognitive abilities and social structures.

The Upper Paleolithic period also saw an increased reliance on plant-based foods, fishing, and small-game hunting. Evidence from archaeological sites indicates the use of bone tools and ornaments, suggesting a growing interest in self-adornment and social identity.

Mesolithic Culture (10,000–5,000 BCE) in the Son Valley

The Mesolithic period represents the transition from hunting-gathering societies to early forms of agriculture and animal domestication. This period is characterized by the widespread use of microlithic tools, which were often used as composite tools attached to wooden or bone handles. The primary sites of Mesolithic occupation in the Son Valley include Baghor, Chopani Mando, and Mahadaha, which provide a rich assemblage of tools, pottery, and skeletal remains.

One of the most significant Mesolithic sites in the Son Valley is Mahadaha (Uttar Pradesh), where a large burial complex has been discovered. The burials indicate the presence of complex social structures, ritualistic practices, and possibly early forms of ancestor worship. The Baghor site (Madhya Pradesh) has yielded evidence of circular stone structures, which might have been used as temporary shelters or ritual spaces.

During the Mesolithic period, climatic conditions became warmer and wetter, leading to the expansion of riverine and lacustrine environments. This change enabled early humans to exploit fish, waterfowl, and aquatic plants as new food sources. Some scholars suggest that the Mesolithic populations of the Son Valley may have started experimenting with proto-agriculture, as seen in the remains of wild rice and barley at sites like Koldihwa and Mahagara.

Neolithic and Chalcolithic Continuation

Although the Mesolithic was the last phase of the Stone Age proper, many Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in the Son Valley suggest a gradual shift towards full-fledged agriculture and metallurgy. Sites such as Koldihwa and Mahagara in the Belan Valley (a tributary of the Son River) provide some of the earliest evidence of rice cultivation and domesticated cattle in India, dating back to 7000 BCE.

The transition to settled life led to the development of pottery, improved dwellings, and more sophisticated social structures. The use of copper tools and early forms of metalworking in the later Chalcolithic period marks the beginning of proto-urban settlements, setting the stage for the emergence of the Harappan and later Vedic cultures.

Conclusion

The Son Valley offers one of the most comprehensive and well-preserved records of Stone Age cultural evolution in India. From the early Acheulean hand axes of the Lower Paleolithic to the intricate microliths of the Mesolithic, the region showcases a rich and dynamic history of human adaptation, innovation, and survival. The presence of prehistoric rock art, burial complexes, and early agricultural experiments further highlights the Son Valley’s crucial role in understanding the prehistoric past of the Indian subcontinent.

By analyzing these cultural sequences, archaeologists continue to uncover valuable insights into the lives, technologies, and beliefs of early human societies, shedding light on the long and complex journey of human civilization in the heart of India.