“Social problem is a generic term applied to a range of conditions and aberrant behaviours which are manifestations of social disorganization. It is a condition which most people in a society consider undesirable and want to correct by changing through some means of social engineering or social planning” (Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, 1994).

Let us first define a problem?

A problem is a condition of discontentment resented by someone. But when it is resented by many people, it becomes a social problem. For a problem to be social, it must involve a large number of people, sometimes groups and institutions, who consider a particular condition as undesirable and intolerable and want to correct through collective action.

Thus, not all problems are social, unless the discontented persons come in contact, and vocalize their discontentment and associate to do something for its solution. A problem becomes social when it is communi­cated to others and the activity of one person leads to similar activity of other persons. Thus, a social problem is different from an individual problem.

Individual problem is one which is felt by only one person or a small group of people. It does not affect the public at large. Its resolutions lie within the power and immediate milieu of the individual or group. A public issue however requires a collective approach for its solutions. No one individual or a few individuals are responsible for the appearance of a socially problematic situation and the control of this situation is also beyond the ability of one person or a few persons.

“Social problem is a generic term applied to a range of conditions and aberrant behaviours which are manifestations of social disorganization. It is a condition which most people in a society consider undesirable and want to correct by changing through some means of social engineering or social planning” (Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, 1994).

The concept of social problem was first developed by sociologists. Fuller and Myers in 1941. They defined it as ‘those conditions or situations which members of the society regard as a threat to their values’. Elucidating their ideas, they said at other place that it is ‘a condition which is defined by a considerable number of persons as a deviation from some social norms which they cherish’.

Reinhardt defined it as ‘a situation confronting a group or a section of society which inflicts injurious consequences that can be handled only collectively.’ Raab and Selznick (1959) hold that a social problem is ‘a problem of human relationship which seriously threatens society or impedes the important aspirations of many people’.

Merton and Nisbet (1961) have defined it as ‘a way of behaviour that is regarded by a substantial part of a social order as being in violation of one or more generally accepted or approved norms’. Walsh and Furfey have defined a social problem as a ‘devi­ation from the social ideal remediable by group effort’.

Horton and Leslie (1970) wrote that a social problem is ‘a condition which many people consider undesirable and want to correct. It is a condition affecting a significant number of people in ways considered undesirable, about which it is felt that something can be done through collective measures’.

Thus, in social problems two things must be present:

(1) An objective condition, like crime, poverty, communal tensions and so forth, the presence and magnitude of which can be observed, verified and measured by impartial social observers; and

(2) A subjective definition by some members of the society that the objective condition is a ‘problem’ and must be acted upon. Here is where values come into play. People start perceiving that some values are being threatened.

Elements of a Social Problems:

Though the above cited definitions differ in ways these are explained, but the following important characteristics may be discerned from them:

1. A condition or situation resented as objectionable by a significant number of people.

2. It is considered as undesirable because of its injurious consequences.

3. All social problems want correction through collective action. They warrant change in conditions via some means of social engineering.

4. All aberrant behaviours or deviations from accepted norms are termed as social problems such as crime, juvenile delinquency, prostitution, rape, drug addiction, domestic violence, ethnic or communal tension.

5. Social problems are not static but change with the change in time and space. Changes in law and mores change the concept of social problem.

Recognizing an undesirable condition and defining it as a social problem are two different things. There can be disagreement if some people believe some condition or situation as undesirable but also think it unavoidable because it is a part of the human condition or the price we pay for ‘progress’ as we see in the case of environment imbalance caused by cutting of trees for constructing roads, dislodging people for constructing dams and canals, air and noise pollution due to increasing motor vehicles, rising rate of accidental deaths involving automobiles, etc.

The steadily rising rate of accidental deaths involving automobiles is long considered to be unavoidable but after effective criticism by many people, automobile safety became a social problem. In the initial stages of industrialization, development of slums and ghettos was also regarded as unavoidable and not a social problem.

People may not define a condition as a problem because it is desirable and natural, and not a threat to their values. Casteist/gender discrimination was not a problem for those who believe the castes/sexes to be naturally unequal. They would deny that differ­ential treatment is ‘discrimination’ (for them, integration is a threat to their values, and thus a social problem).

In reality, it requires a belief in equality in order to define discrimination as a problem. There are people who still do not believe that poverty is a social problem. They regard it as unavoidable fate of the masses. Poor people are to blame for their own condition of poverty. Such people define poverty as the personal failure of those who are poor, not a consequence of the arrangement of social structure.

But such old notions have changed in the modern societies and people started believing that something could be done about such condition and society (government) should take step to do something.

Sources of Social Problems:

A perfectly integrated society has no social problem. But no society is perfect, and cannot be perfect, so Utopian expectations are unwarranted. The existence of social problems indicates some unsatisfactory and value-threatening aspects of an otherwise satisfactory society.

The sources of social problems are so many and may be grouped as under:

1. Social problems occur because modern society is so complex, and so intricate in its internal organization that an inconsistent and loosely meshed social structure cannot help but generate strains and social tensions. Most social problems are intricate and interwoven, like housing, poverty, unemployment, and inequality.

2. If modern society is highly productive and highly rewarding in status and material goods for so many, it still has a dark side to it. There are costs and casualties to any social system. It is often said that progress has its own price.

Many developmental schemes have brought different types of problems for the people, e.g., construction of dams on the rivers has displaced many persons from their villages. Similarly, construction of roads has forced cutting of trees which in turn has led to environmental degradation. Roads construction has also displaced many persons.

3. Social change continually alters social structure and therefore disrupts established relations among social groups (such as relationship between Gujjars and Meenas in Rajasthan), redefines social roles (such as between working husband and wife), and renders some beliefs and behaviour patterns outmoded or dysfunctional.

Types of Social Problems:

Sociologists distinguish between two types of social problems. First, problems of social organization which are created by the way the community or the society is organized. Community or society produces situations that some members of the society refuse to accept as right or necessary or even inevi­table.

These are, for instance, communalism, casteism, regionalism, poverty, gender discrimination, population, environmental imbalance (different kinds of pollution, health hazards, etc.). Second, problems of deviance having to do with the adjustment of people to conventional ways of living.

These include, for example, delinquency, drug addiction, alcoholism, mental illness, various forms of sexual behaviour (rape, incest, sodomy), bigamy, prostitution, vandalism and host of other behaviours, most of which are forbidden by law.

Unemployment refers to the condition where individuals who are capable of working, actively seeking a job, and willing to work at the prevailing wage rate are unable to find suitable employment. It is a critical economic issue that reflects inefficiencies in the labor market and has far-reaching socio-economic implications. Unemployment is often categorized into different types, such as structural unemployment, frictional unemployment, cyclical unemployment, and seasonal unemployment, each with distinct causes and solutions. Governments worldwide, including India, implement various strategies to address and mitigate unemployment.

Understanding Unemployment

Unemployment arises from a mismatch between the demand for labor and its supply. It can be measured using metrics like the unemployment rate, which represents the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed. High unemployment rates often indicate underutilization of a nation’s productive capacity and can lead to economic stagnation, poverty, and social unrest.

Measures Taken by Governments to Eradicate Unemployment

Governments adopt a mix of policy measures, programs, and reforms to combat unemployment, including:

1. Employment Generation Programs

Governments often launch large-scale initiatives aimed at creating job opportunities:

• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): In India, this act guarantees at least 100 days of wage employment per year to rural households. By providing unskilled manual work, it not only ensures livelihood but also contributes to rural development through infrastructure projects.
• National Skill Development Mission (NSDM): This program focuses on enhancing the employability of the workforce by providing skills training in diverse sectors.

2. Industrialization and Promotion of MSMEs

Industrial growth is pivotal for large-scale employment generation:

• Promotion of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs): Governments encourage the growth of small and medium businesses through subsidies, loans, and policy support. In India, the MSME sector employs over 120 million people.
• Make in India Initiative: This initiative aims to turn India into a global manufacturing hub, fostering job creation across various sectors.

3. Educational Reforms and Skill Development

Unemployment is often linked to skill gaps and mismatched qualifications:

• Vocational Training: Governments establish vocational training centers and integrate skills education into the curriculum.
• National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 (India): This policy emphasizes experiential learning, entrepreneurship, and vocational education to enhance employability.
• Digital Skills Training: Programs like Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) train youth in digital skills to meet industry demands in the digital economy.

4. Agricultural Reforms

In countries with agrarian economies, seasonal unemployment is a significant challenge:

• Doubling Farmers’ Income Initiative: By promoting allied activities like dairy, fisheries, and food processing, governments reduce dependence on seasonal farming.
• Irrigation and Infrastructure Projects: Projects like Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana ensure better water management, increasing agricultural productivity and creating jobs.

5. Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)

Governments collaborate with private entities to create job opportunities:

• Start-Up India: This initiative fosters entrepreneurship by providing funding and ease-of-doing-business incentives.
• Encouraging foreign investment through relaxed regulations boosts job creation in industries like technology, manufacturing, and infrastructure.

6. Labor Market Reforms

Governments streamline labor laws to make hiring and retaining employees easier:

• Simplification of Labor Codes: India has consolidated its complex labor laws into four broad labor codes, making it easier for industries to hire.
• Employment Exchanges: Revamping employment exchange systems helps match job seekers with appropriate opportunities.

7. Promoting Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship

Self-employment reduces dependency on formal job markets:

• Mudra Yojana (India): This scheme provides micro-finance to individuals to start small businesses.
• Stand-Up India: It supports entrepreneurs from marginalized communities, particularly women.

8. Social Security and Safety Nets

For those unable to find work, governments offer unemployment benefits:

• Atal Beemit Vyakti Kalyan Yojana: This scheme provides financial assistance to workers covered under the Employee State Insurance Scheme (ESI) during periods of unemployment.

Impact of Government Measures

Efforts to eradicate unemployment have shown mixed results. For example:

• In India, MGNREGA has significantly reduced rural unemployment, lifting millions out of poverty.
• Skill development programs have empowered the youth, but challenges such as poor implementation, lack of industry alignment, and insufficient funding hinder progress.
• Initiatives like Make in India and Start-Up India have spurred entrepreneurship, but unemployment remains a concern due to structural challenges in the economy.

Challenges in Eradicating Unemployment

Despite robust policies, several hurdles persist:

• Population Growth: Rapid population growth increases the burden on job creation efforts.
• Automation and Technological Displacement: Advancements in technology reduce demand for low-skill labor.
• Economic Slowdowns: Global economic fluctuations impact job markets, leading to layoffs.
• Regional Disparities: Urban areas benefit disproportionately from employment programs, leaving rural areas lagging.

Conclusion

Unemployment is a multi-dimensional challenge that requires holistic solutions. Governments play a pivotal role by fostering economic growth, investing in human capital, and ensuring equitable job opportunities. While strides have been made, long-term eradication of unemployment necessitates sustained efforts, innovation, and effective implementation of policies. Addressing unemployment not only improves individual well-being but also strengthens the socio-economic fabric of a nation.

The Scheduled Castes (SCs), historically referred to as Dalits or oppressed classes, have faced systemic social discrimination, economic marginalization, and political exclusion in Indian society. To address these inequities and promote the welfare of SC communities, both the central and state governments in India have implemented a wide range of policies. These measures aim to ensure their socio-economic upliftment, provide equal opportunities, and protect their rights.

Understanding Scheduled Castes and Their Historical Disadvantages

The SCs, identified under Article 341 of the Indian Constitution, represent a significant section of India’s population. Historically, they were subjected to untouchability, exclusion from educational and economic opportunities, and lack of political representation. Recognizing these injustices, the framers of the Constitution introduced various provisions to promote social justice and inclusive development.

Constitutional Provisions for Scheduled Castes

The Indian Constitution includes several provisions that guide state policies for SC welfare:

• Article 15 and 17: Prohibit discrimination on the grounds of caste and abolish untouchability.
• Article 46: Directs the State to promote the educational and economic interests of SCs and protect them from exploitation.
• Article 338: Establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) to monitor and evaluate SC-related policies.
• Articles 330 and 332: Reserve seats for SCs in Parliament and State Legislatures.

Main State Policies for Scheduled Castes

The government’s policies for SCs span multiple sectors, addressing education, employment, economic empowerment, social welfare, and legal protection. Below are the key policies and initiatives:

1. Educational Policies

Education is a primary focus area, as it is viewed as a tool for breaking the cycle of poverty and social exclusion:

• Reservation in Educational Institutions: SCs have reserved seats in schools, colleges, and universities, including a 15% quota in central government institutions.
• Scholarship Schemes:
  • Post-Matric Scholarships (PMS): Provide financial assistance to SC students for higher education.
  • Pre-Matric Scholarships: Support school-going SC children from economically weaker backgrounds.
  • National Fellowship for SC Students: Funds SC candidates pursuing higher studies such as M.Phil. and Ph.D.
• Special Hostels and Residential Schools: Governments have established hostels and schools exclusively for SC students to ensure access to quality education.
• Midday Meal Scheme: While universal, this scheme has played a significant role in encouraging SC children to attend school.

2. Employment Policies

State policies have been instrumental in improving employment opportunities for SCs:

• Reservation in Public Employment: A 15% quota is reserved for SCs in government jobs at the central and state levels.
• Special Coaching and Skill Development Programs: Initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) provide skills training to enhance employability among SC youth.
• Financial Aid for Entrepreneurs: Schemes like Stand-Up India and the Venture Capital Fund for SCs provide financial support for SC entrepreneurs to start and sustain businesses.

3. Economic Empowerment

Governments have introduced targeted measures to improve the economic status of SC communities:

• Scheduled Castes Sub-Plan (SCSP): Mandates a proportion of Plan outlay from central and state budgets to be allocated for SC welfare.
• National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC): Provides loans and grants to SC individuals for self-employment ventures.
• Land Redistribution Programs: States have implemented land redistribution schemes to provide land ownership to SC families, promoting agricultural livelihoods.

4. Social Welfare Policies

The State ensures the socio-cultural integration of SCs through various initiatives:

• Prohibition of Manual Scavenging: The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and Their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 aims to eliminate this inhumane practice and rehabilitate affected individuals.
• Dr. Ambedkar Foundation Schemes: Programs like the Dr. Ambedkar National Memorial aim to promote awareness of SC rights and contributions to society.
• Housing Schemes: Programs such as the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana prioritize SC households for affordable housing.

5. Legal Protection Against Atrocities

To curb caste-based violence and discrimination, stringent laws have been enacted:

• The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Provides legal safeguards against caste-based atrocities, discrimination, and social exclusion.
• Special Courts and Prosecutors: Dedicated courts and public prosecutors expedite cases related to SC rights violations.
• Free Legal Aid: SC victims of violence and exploitation are provided with free legal assistance under various state and central schemes.

6. Political Empowerment

Political representation has been a cornerstone of SC welfare:

• Reservation of Seats in Legislatures: A fixed percentage of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies are reserved for SC candidates.
• Panchayati Raj Reservations: SCs are given reserved seats in panchayats and urban local bodies to ensure grassroots political representation.

7. Health and Nutrition Policies

SC communities often face significant health challenges due to poor living conditions:

• National Health Mission (NHM): Focuses on improving health indicators in SC-dominated regions.
• Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): Provides financial incentives to SC women for institutional deliveries.
• Nutritional Support Schemes: Programs like the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) prioritize SC households.

Impact of State Policies

These policies have brought about notable improvements:

• Literacy rates among SCs have improved significantly, from 54.7% in 2001 to 66.1% in 2011.
• Reservation policies have increased SC representation in government jobs and educational institutions.
• SCs’ participation in local governance has strengthened through panchayat reservations.
• Economic empowerment schemes have led to a rise in SC-owned enterprises.

Challenges and Gaps in Implementation

Despite progress, several challenges persist:

• Caste Discrimination: Social prejudice against SCs continues to hinder full integration.
• Underutilization of Funds: Many states fail to utilize allocated funds under schemes like SCSP effectively.
• Unemployment: A lack of market-aligned skills training has resulted in limited economic opportunities for SC youth.
• Caste-Based Violence: Crimes against SCs, such as physical assaults and denial of access to public spaces, remain prevalent.

Conclusion

State policies for Scheduled Castes aim to ensure equality, dignity, and opportunity for a historically marginalized community. While significant strides have been made, achieving complete social and economic parity requires sustained efforts, robust implementation, and social reforms. Eradicating caste-based discrimination and fostering inclusivity in every sphere of life will be pivotal in fulfilling the constitutional promise of equality and justice for SCs.

The social sciences, e.g., sociology, like all social sciences, have dual role. They serve to help the people to solve their problems and at the same time to explore and understand the world around them. They seek to understand the fundamental mechanism of social reality but their desire to understand is always motivated by the wish to control.

The main aim of sociologist (pure/applied) is to improve social life, to bring welfare in society through scientific investigation, and to manage change in society. In this role, though he/she is specialist of scientific knowledge about the society, he/she tries to direct the change to establish harmonious relations in society.

As a pure scientist, the role of a sociologist is limited to the study of social problems—their causes and effects—and to suggest measures to solve them effectively. In this role, he/she is required to be just analyst of the problems.

At the most he/she can devise ways and means to correct them, though this is also the task of a social worker—a different discipline from sociology. But, in no case he/she should involve himself/herself in the action programme to solve the social problem. It is advised that he/she should not assume the role of an activist.

Nowadays, there is a serious debate about the role of sociologists in solving social problems. There are sociologists like Alain Touraine (1988) who developed a radical new approach known as actionalism. He claimed that sociologist is an agent of change, not a neutral observer. He/she has a stake in the conflicts of his/her society.

As such, he/she should play the role of a ‘sociological interventionist’ in which he/she should study social change movements by participating in them directly. Long back, founder sociologist Durkheim also wished to apply sociological knowledge to social intervention in order to create social harmony and regain balance in society disturbed by social change.

Aging is a natural process, but in the context of societal structures, it presents unique challenges for individuals and governments alike. As life expectancy increases due to advancements in healthcare and living conditions, societies across the globe, including India, face the complexities of an aging population. The elderly encounter a range of problems, including financial insecurity, health issues, social isolation, and neglect. To address these challenges, governments implement state policies aimed at securing the welfare and dignity of senior citizens. These policies have far-reaching implications for the quality of life of older adults, their integration into society, and the broader socio-economic structure.

Understanding Old Age Problems

The challenges faced by the elderly can be broadly categorized into financial dependency, healthcare needs, social isolation, and abuse or neglect. In India, the proportion of people aged 60 and above has been steadily increasing, projected to reach 19% of the total population by 2050. This demographic shift necessitates comprehensive state interventions to address their unique requirements and ensure their well-being.

State Policies for the Elderly

Governments introduce a variety of policies and programs aimed at addressing the needs of senior citizens. These policies span financial security, healthcare services, legal protection, and social inclusion initiatives. While these measures have significantly improved the lives of the elderly, their implementation and implications vary across regions and socio-economic contexts.

1. Financial Security for Senior Citizens

One of the most pressing concerns for the elderly is financial insecurity, as many lack stable income sources after retirement. To address this:

• Pension Schemes: The government provides financial support through programs like the Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS), offering monthly pensions to individuals aged 60 and above who belong to below-poverty-line (BPL) households. This ensures a basic income for survival, though the amounts often fall short of covering all expenses.
• Senior Citizens Savings Scheme (SCSS): This initiative encourages savings among retirees by offering higher interest rates, providing them with financial independence during their non-working years.
• Tax Benefits: Income tax exemptions and deductions under schemes like Section 80D (for medical insurance premiums) provide financial relief to elderly taxpayers.

These policies reduce the financial burden on families, fostering economic stability for senior citizens. However, limited awareness and access to these benefits in rural and remote areas dilute their impact.

2. Healthcare for the Elderly

With aging comes an increase in chronic illnesses, physical disabilities, and mental health issues, requiring robust healthcare support:

• National Programme for Health Care of the Elderly (NPHCE): Launched in 2010, this program aims to provide specialized healthcare for the elderly at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. It includes facilities for geriatric OPDs, wards, and home-based care.
• Ayushman Bharat Scheme: While not exclusively for the elderly, this initiative provides affordable healthcare coverage, benefitting older adults with limited financial resources.
• Free Medicine and Diagnostics Schemes: Many states offer free medicines and diagnostic services to the elderly under various public health programs.
• Mental Health Initiatives: Policies emphasize mental well-being, addressing issues like dementia, depression, and Alzheimer’s disease.

Despite these provisions, the healthcare system often struggles to meet the growing demand for specialized geriatric care, especially in rural and underserved regions, where healthcare infrastructure is limited.

3. Social Security and Legal Protection

Social security policies aim to safeguard the rights and dignity of senior citizens:

• The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007: This landmark legislation mandates children or relatives to provide maintenance for the elderly and sets up tribunals for grievance redressal. The act also penalizes abandonment of senior citizens, ensuring legal recourse against neglect and abuse.
• Elder Abuse Protection: Some states have launched helplines and special police cells to address elder abuse and promote awareness about legal rights.
• Public Distribution System (PDS): Many state governments prioritize the elderly in accessing food grains and other essentials at subsidized rates.

These measures empower the elderly, ensuring they are not left vulnerable to exploitation. However, lack of awareness and societal stigma around elder abuse often result in underreporting of violations.

4. Social Inclusion Initiatives

Social isolation is a significant issue among senior citizens, particularly those who live alone or have limited mobility:

• Daycare Centers and Recreational Facilities: The government supports the establishment of senior citizen clubs and daycare centers to encourage social interaction and combat loneliness.
• Digital Literacy Programs: Initiatives to improve digital literacy among the elderly help them stay connected with loved ones and access essential services online.
• Elderly as a Resource: Programs like the Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana provide assistive devices to enable active participation in community life.

These initiatives foster a sense of belonging and self-worth among the elderly, reducing their isolation and improving mental health outcomes.

Implications of State Policies on Old Age Problems

The impact of state policies on addressing old age problems can be analyzed across several dimensions:

1. Economic Empowerment

By providing pensions and tax benefits, state policies alleviate financial distress among the elderly. However, the adequacy of financial support remains a concern, especially for those in urban areas where living costs are higher. Strengthening the scope and implementation of pension schemes could further reduce dependency on family members.

2. Improved Access to Healthcare

Healthcare-focused policies have extended the lifespan and enhanced the quality of life for many elderly individuals. Specialized care under programs like NPHCE highlights the state’s commitment to addressing geriatric health. However, unequal distribution of healthcare infrastructure and shortage of trained professionals in geriatric medicine often limits the reach of these programs.

3. Enhanced Legal and Social Protection

The Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act empowers older adults to demand their rights. Yet, societal norms and familial dynamics sometimes hinder enforcement. Increased awareness and advocacy are required to ensure the act’s objectives are fully realized.

4. Reduction in Social Isolation

Recreational programs and daycare facilities improve mental well-being and foster community engagement. However, participation in these programs is often low due to mobility issues or cultural barriers.

5. Broader Societal Impacts

State policies addressing old age problems indirectly benefit families and the economy. By reducing the dependency of senior citizens, these measures alleviate financial and emotional stress on caregivers, allowing the younger population to focus on economic productivity.

Challenges in Implementation

Despite the progress achieved, several challenges persist:

• Urban-Rural Divide: Rural elderly populations face significant barriers to accessing pensions, healthcare, and legal recourse due to lack of infrastructure and awareness.
• Fragmented Policy Approach: Coordination among various departments and schemes is often lacking, leading to inefficiencies and duplication.
• Limited Focus on Mental Health: While physical health receives attention, mental health issues among the elderly are frequently overlooked.

Conclusion

State policies for old age problems have made substantial strides in addressing the needs of senior citizens, ensuring financial security, healthcare, and social inclusion. However, the growing elderly population necessitates a more integrated and inclusive approach. Strengthening implementation mechanisms, expanding outreach, and fostering societal attitudes of respect and care for the elderly are essential. A holistic strategy will not only secure the dignity and well-being of older adults but also create a society that values and supports its aging population.

What Is Poverty?

The term poverty refers to the state or condition in which people or communities lack the financial resources and other essentials for a minimum standard of living. As such, they cannot meet their basic human needs.

People and families who live in poverty may go without proper housing, clean water, healthy food, and medical attention. Each nation may have its own criteria for determining the poverty line and counting how many of its people live in poverty.

Poverty is a socioeconomic condition that is the result of multiple factors—not just income. These factors include race, sexual identity, sexual orientation, and access to education, among others.

Understanding Poverty

Poverty refers to the lack of adequate financial resources such that individuals, households, and entire communities don’t have the means to subsist or to acquire the basic necessities for a flourishing life. This absence of means can result in struggles to obtain food, clothing, shelter, and medicine.

Poverty is both an individual concern as well as a broader social problem. At the individual or household level, not being able to make ends meet can lead to a range of social, physical, and mental issues. At the societal level, high poverty rates can be a damper on economic growth and be associated with problems like crime, unemployment, urban decay, poor education, and poor public health.

Governments often put social welfare programs in place to help lift individuals, families, and communities out of poverty. Some countries have stronger welfare states (social safety nets) than others. For instance, the United States tends to be much more individualistic and has relatively limited welfare programs. European countries, in comparison, have a much broader range of welfare programs and supports for those in need.

Causes of Poverty

1. Rapidly Rising Population: India’s population has steadily increased through the years. During the past 45 years, it has risen at a rate of 2.2% per year, which means, on average, about 17 million people are added to the country’s population each year. This also increases the demand for consumption goods tremendously.
2. Low Productivity in Agriculture: A major reason for poverty is low productivity in the agriculture sector. The reason for low productivity is manifold. Chiefly, it is because of fragmented and subdivided landholdings, lack of capital, illiteracy about new technologies in farming, the use of traditional methods of cultivation, wastage during storage, etc. Read, Agriculture Product Market Committee – APMC for relevant details.
3. Underutilized Resources: There is underemployment and disguised unemployment in the country, particularly in the farming sector. This has resulted in low agricultural output and also led to a dip in the standard of living.
4. Low Rate of Economic Development: Economic development has been low in India. There is a gap between the requirement and the availability of goods and services.
5. Price Rise: Price rise has been steady in the country and this has added to the burden the poor carry. Although a few people have benefited from this, the lower-income groups have suffered because of it, and are not even able to satisfy their basic minimum wants.
6. Unemployment: Unemployment is another factor causing poverty in India. The ever-increasing population has led to a higher number of job-seekers. However, there is not enough expansion in opportunities to match this demand for employment.
7. Shortage of Capital and Able Entrepreneurship: The shortage of capital and entrepreneurship is making it harder to increase production.
8. Social Factors: Apart from economic and commercial, there are also social factors hindering the eradication of poverty in India. Some of the hindrances in this regard are the laws of inheritance, caste system, certain traditions, etc. Read about vulnerability due to caste on the linked page.
9. Political Factors: The British colonization and rule over India for about two centuries have caused damaging harm to the nature of India’s economy. India, which was once a chief producer, has been reduced to a big market. Much of the natural resources of the country were used to benefit British coffers and a lot of wealth was siphoned off to the homeland of the rulers. They also reduced many classes of people such as farmers, artisans, potters, weavers, etc. to their current state of poverty. 

Indian society is pluralistic from religious point of view. Here, we have the followers of all the great religious systems. Hindus constitute the bulk of the population and they inhabit in all parts of the country. Muslims constitute the largest religious minority. But the adjustment between the Hindus and Muslims has been a failure several times, resulting in violent communal riots.

Image Courtesy : blogs.reuters.com/faithworld/files/2009/04/hindu-militant.jpg

In the communal riots during the period of independence millions of people were rendered homeless while millions of others lost their property. Communalism was responsible for the division of the country into India and Pakistan. The partition was expected to resolve the riddle, but it failed. There is, yet, to develop the neighborhood living pattern between Hindus and Muslims.

Meaning of Communalism:

Communalism, as we understand it in our country is blind loyalty to one’s own religious group. It is described as a tool to mobilize people for or against by raising an appeal on communal lines. Communalism is associated with religious fundamentalism and dogmatism.

Abdul Ahmed says, “Communalism is a social phenomenon characterized by the religion of two communities, often leading to acrimony, tension and even rioting between them”. Prabha Dixit writes, “Communalism is a political doctrine which makes use of religious and cultural differences to achieve political ends.

According to Asqhar Ali Engineer, Moin Shakir and Abdul Ahmed, “it is an instrument in the hands of to upper Cass to concentrate power by dividing people”. The elites strive to maintain a status quo against transformation by dividing people on communal and religious lines. Communalism may be perceived as a total commitment to a set of beliefs and it, s far from rationality.

Characteristics of Communalism:

(i) Communalism is an ideological concept,

(ii) It is a complex process,

(iii) It has a broader base which encompasses social, economic and political aspects for its manifestation.

(iv) It causes rivalry, violence and tension among masses,

(v) It is used by the higher class people and elites as an instrument for division and exploitation of the communal identities of the poorer sections of their co-religionists.

(vi) Communalism is simply engineered by opportunistic political and economic interest of contending groups and factions within a political party or by political parties.

(vii) It strikes at the roots of democracy, secularism and national integration.

(viii) Its effects are disastrous.

Causes of Communalism:

There are a number of causes which are responsible for the prevalence of communalism. Some of two important causes of communalism are discussed below.

1. Tendency of the Minorities:

The Muslims fail to be intermingled in the national mainstream. Most of them do not participate in the secular nationalistic politics and insist on maintaining tor separate identity the elite among the Muslims have failed to generate the appropriate national ethos.

2. Orthodoxy and Obscurantism:

The orthodox members of minorities feel that they have a distinct entity with their own cultural pattern, personal laws and thought. There are strong elements of conservatism and fundamentalism among the Muslims. Such feeling has prevented them from accepting the concept of secularism and religious tolerance.

3. Design of the Leaders:

Communalism has flourished in India because the communalist leaders of both Hindu and Muslim communities desire to flourish it in the interest of their communities. The demand for separate electorate and the organization of Muslim league were the practical manifestations of this line of thought. The British rule which produced the divide and rule policy, separate electorate on the basis of religion strengthened the basis of communalism in India Ultimately the partition of the country into India and Pakistan provided further an antagonistic feeling towards each other.

4. Weak Economic Status:

A majority of Muslims in India has failed to adopt the scientific and technological education. Due to their educational backwardness, they have not been represented sufficiently in the public service, industry and trade etc. This causes the feeling of relative deprivation and such feelings contain the seeds of communalism.

5. Geographical Causes:

The territorial settlement of different religious groups especially Hindus Muslims and Christians causes in them wide variation in the mode of life, social standards and belief system. Most of these patterns are contradictory and this may cause communal tension.

6. Historical Causes:

The Muslims, all over the subcontinent, are converts from Hinduism, which was facilitated due to the caste-hate relations and under the compulsions of Muslim rulers. The problems of social segregation, illiteracy and poverty that had set apart the low caste people remain unresolved for them, as the foreign elite that rubbed never shared power with them. Their work ended with the conversion of the Indians and the converts began by imitating the masters in thought, speech and dress. It caused their alienation. Gradually, elements of communalism entered in the Muslim community. The separatist elements in the Muslim community, from the very start of the national resurgence had discouraged others of their community, from associating themselves with it. As a result Muslim league was formed which demanded partition of the country.

7. Social Causes:

Cultural similarity is a powerful factor in fostering amicable relations between any two social groups. But the social institutions, customs and practices of Hindus and Muslims are so divergent that they think themselves to be two distinct communities.

8. Psychological Causes:

Psychological factors play an important role in the development of communalism. The Hindus think that the Muslims are fanatics and fundamentalists. They also believe that Muslims are unpatriotic. On the contrary, the Muslims feel that they are being treated as second rate citizens in India and their religious beliefs and practices are inferior. These feelings lead to communal ill-feeing.

9. Provocation of Enemy Countries:

Some foreign countries try to destabilize our country by setting one community against the other through their agents. Pakistan has played a role in fostering communal feeling among the Muslims of our country. Pakistan has been encouraging and promoting communal riots by instigating the militant sections of Indian Muslim community. Kashmir youths are trained by Pakistan to destabilize India’s internal security by spreading communal venom.

10. Negative Impact of Mass Media:

The messages relating to communal tension or riot in any part of the country spread through the mass media. This results in further tension and riots between two rival religious groups.

Suggestions for the Eradication of Communalism:

The following measures may be taken for the eradication of communalism.

1. Abolition of Communal Parties:

All the political parties which thrive on religious loyalties should be banned or abolished by the government. Even non-political cultural organizations should always be kept under constant vigil so that they cannot preach communalism.

2. Transmission of the Past Heritage:

Feelings of nationalism should be inculcated in the minds of people by reminding them about the glorious moments of history in Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs were combined to safeguard the interest of the country.

3. Public Opinion:

Efforts should be made through mass media for changing the attitude of people towards other communities. People must be aware of the evils of the communalism.

4. Inter-religious Marriage:

Youth organizations and other types of associations should be formed in every locality to give opportunity to people of different communities to come closer and know each other. This may help them to practice inter-religious marriages which will lessen the social distance among the members of different religious groups.

Both the Government and people should make efforts for eradication of communal tension and conflict.

What is Child Labour?

Child Labour means when children are made to work in a way that takes away their childhood, potential, and self-respect.

• It includes work that is dangerous or harmful to children’s physical, mental, social, or moral well-being.
• It also includes work that stops them from going to school, either by not allowing them to attend or by forcing them to leave early.

Whether a particular type of work is considered child Labour depends on factors like the child’s age, the kind and hours of work, the conditions in which it takes place, and the rules set by each country. The definition may vary from country to country and even within different industries within a country.

Facts and Statistics of Child Labour in India

1. Total child population (5-14 years) in India: 259.6 million (Census 2011).
2. Working children in India: 10.1 million (3.9% of the total child population) as “main workers” or “marginal workers.”
3. Out-of-school children in India: more than 42.7 million.
4. Child Labour decreased in India by 2.6 million between 2001 and 2011.
5. The decline is more visible in rural areas, while the number of child workers increased in urban areas, indicating a growing demand for child workers in menial jobs.

Causes of Child Labour

There are many other factors that contribute to the problem, such as social norms, cultural beliefs, and discrimination.

Consequences of Child Labour

The consequences faced have a far-reaching impact on the child, society, and the nation as a whole:

Solutions to the Issue of Child Labour in India

Addressing the issue of child Labour in India requires a comprehensive approach involving various stakeholders.

1. Strengthening Legislative Framework: Enforce and strengthen existing laws, such as the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, to ensure comprehensive protection for children and stricter penalties for offenders. Amendments should align with international standards.
2. Access to Quality Education: Ensure universal access to free and quality education for all children. Implement and enforce the Right to Education Act, focusing on reducing dropout rates and increasing enrollment in schools.
3. Poverty Alleviation: Tackle the root causes of child Labour by implementing poverty alleviation programs, providing economic support to families living in poverty, and promoting livelihood opportunities for parents.
4. Awareness and Sensitization: Conduct widespread awareness campaigns targeting parents, communities, and employers about the detrimental effects of child Labour on children’s physical, mental, and educational development.
5. Rehabilitation and Social Protection: Develop and implement comprehensive rehabilitation programs for rescued child laborers, including access to education, vocational training, healthcare, and psychological support. Establish social protection schemes for vulnerable families to prevent children from entering the Labour force.
6. International Cooperation: Collaborate with international organizations, such as the International Labour Organization (ILO) and UNICEF, to access expertise, technical assistance, and financial resources to combat child Labour effectively.
7. Empowering Local Communities: Involve local communities, including parents, teachers, and community leaders, in preventing child Labour. Empower them to identify and report cases of child Labour and provide support for rehabilitation and reintegration efforts.

It is important to recognize that addressing child Labour is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires sustained efforts, collaboration, and the commitment of all stakeholders to create lasting change.

Conclusion

Addressing and eliminating child Labour is crucial for the well-being of children, the progress of society, and the sustainable development of a nation.

It requires concerted efforts, comprehensive policies, and the active involvement of various stakeholders to ensure the protection of children’s rights and their holistic development.

INTRODUCTION

Meaning:

Casteism is one of the rural social problems, which is very peculiar to the Indian soci­ety. Indian society is a country of various religions. Each religion is sub-divided into different castes and these castes again into sub-castes. The culture of each caste varies though they all belong to one religion. Among these castes, certain are given a high status and others a low status, depending upon their caste occupation.

In such a society, there is every possibility for caste conflicts to occur. These conflicts have their origin in casteism, which refers to the hatred of one caste by the other, or the attempts made by the members of one caste to gain personal advantages to the detriment of interests of the other caste members. In brief, casteism refers to one-sided loyalty in favour of a particular caste.

Casteism leads the members of one caste to exploit the members of other caste for their own vested interest in the name of superiority or inferiority. According to R. N. Sharma, ‘casteism is a blind group loyalty towards one’s own caste or sub-caste, which does not care for the interests of other castes, and seeks to realize the social, eco­nomic, political and other interests of its own group’.

According to D. N. Prasad, casteism is loyalty to caste translated into politics. It is an overriding blind and supreme group loyalty that ignores the healthy social standards of justice, their play, equality and universal brotherhood’.

Casteism is considered as a social problem as it disturbs the sound governmental politics and democracy and paves the way for mutual group conflicts. Casteism is mani­fested in the form of clashes between various castes for higher share in the socio-eco­nomic privileges and power.

Causes of Casteism:

There are many causes of casteism. Some of them are as follows:

i. Casteism increases, when a particular group tends to improve the status of its own caste. In order to achieve such status, the members even adopt the most improper methods to enhance the prestige of their caste.

ii. Marital rules such as endogamy, i.e., marriage within the group is another factor. Under the caste system, which allows casteism to perpetuate, such restrictions placed on marriage forces an individual to marry within his own caste group, which brings about cohesion within the group, thereby increasing casteism.

iii. Communication between rural and urban areas became easy through urbani­zation. The feelings of caste were easily carried through the members from rural areas to urban areas through migration. The members of the caste have to face various problems and as a result, a need to provide security on com­munal basis was felt. This factor of need for security also encourages casteism.

iv. Easy access to the means of transport and communication is another factor, which contributes to the growth of casteism. Members of the same caste, who were previously not much in touch with each other, are now able to establish intimate relationships. The spread of the feeling of casteism became easy through mass media, such as newspapers, magazines, etc.

The impact of casteism on society is severe. Right from the individual to the whole nation, it affects the society as a whole.

Some of the ill-effects of casteism are as follows:

i. Casteism perpetuates the practice of untouchability and becomes an obstacle in providing social equality and justice.

ii. Casteism proves to be a threat to social order, stability, peace and harmony, in the society.

iii. Prevalence of casteism shows that the people are tradition-bound, conserv­ative and orthodox in thinking. It may cause a hurdle to the upliftment of women because of lack of encouragement from caste-conscious groups.

iv. Casteism divides society into different segments and results in conflicts and tensions in and between these segments. These continuous conflicts and ten­sions between various segments hinder the development of the nation and growth of nationalism.

v. Casteism results in political disunity and affects the smooth and successful functioning of multi-party democracy like India.

vi. Casteism, indirectly, can be the cause of corruption. Members of a caste try to give all facilities to the persons, who are from their own caste and in doing so, they do not hesitate to involve in the most corrupt activities.

vii. Casteism has become an instrument in the hands of political leaders. Many political leaders, during elections, try to procure votes on communal and caste basis, rather than their own capacities and capabilities. This results in election of under-serving candidates, who do not hesitate to promote their own caste interest at the cost of common good. Thus, casteism proves to be a hindrance to democracy.

viii. Merit and efficiency may not be given importance, if appointments to various positions both in the public and private sectors are based on caste considera­tions. This results in hindering the technology and industrial efficiency.

ix. It also becomes an obstacle in achieving social mobility.

X. Casteism sometimes leads to religious conversions, especially among the low caste groups, who are not financially sound. Another cause for such conver­sions is that certain unbearable exploited conditions arise out of dominance of certain caste groups over other caste groups.

Solution to the Problem of Casteism:

Till now, we have discussed about the ill-effects of casteism. Then what could be done in order to eliminate or minimize the problems of casteisms?

Some of the solutions for the problems arising out of casteism are as follows:

i. Providing value-based education to children from childhood can solve the problem of casteism to some extent.

ii. Various social agencies like family, school, and Mass media must be given the responsibility to develop a proper, broad outlook among children, which will negate the feelings of casteism, for example, creating awareness about the ill-effects of perpetuating the traditional caste system.

iii. Literary programmes must be taken up in rural areas as the caste feelings, which further perpetuate casteism, are more in rural areas. These feelings of casteism can be minimized by the provision of social education among rural population.

iv. By encouraging inter-caste marriages, the feelings arising out of casteism can be minimized as these marriages bring two families of different castes closer to each other.

V. Provision of cultural and economic equality among different sections of the society reduces the chances of jealousy and competition. Thus, economic and cultural equality is important in eliminating casteism.

Suggestions by Some Sociologists:

According to R. N. Sharma, different scholars have suggested different views and solutions for the problems and conflicts arising out of casteism.

Some of them are as follows:

i. According to G. S. Ghurye, the conflict originating in casteism can be removed by encouraging inter-caste marriages. Co-education should be introduced at the primary level and boys and girls should be given the opportunity to come together. This will lead to improvement of behaviour between different sexes simultaneously, with which casteism will be actively refuted.

ii. According to Dr. V. K. R. V. Rao, in order to put an end to casteism and to deprive it of its very basis, the creation of some optional groups is neces­sary through which the communal tendencies of the individuals can be mani­fested and organized. As these increase, casteism decreases because the indi­viduals will have the chance to express their instincts and motives outside the caste.

iii. According to Mrs. Irawati Karve, in order to put an end to the conflicts aris­ing out of casteism, it is necessary to create economic and cultural equality between the castes.

iv. Professor P. N. Prabhu is of the opinion that the conflicts created by casteism can be ended only when the internal aspects of conduct are influenced. For this, it is necessary to try and develop new attitudes in the people.

Sociology, as the scientific study of human society and social behavior, plays a crucial role in understanding, analyzing, and addressing social problems. Social problems are issues that adversely affect a significant segment of society and hinder social cohesion, such as poverty, inequality, crime, substance abuse, and discrimination. These problems are not merely personal troubles but are deeply rooted in the structure and dynamics of society. Sociology provides a framework to explore these issues systematically, offering insights into their causes, manifestations, and possible solutions.

Defining Sociology and Social Problems

Sociology focuses on understanding how individuals interact with one another and with social institutions, such as family, education, economy, and government. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of social structures, norms, and values. Social problems, on the other hand, are societal conditions perceived as harmful, undesirable, or unjust, often requiring collective action for resolution. Examples include poverty, racial discrimination, gender inequality, unemployment, and environmental degradation.

The relevance of sociology lies in its ability to offer a multidimensional perspective on these problems, moving beyond surface-level observations to uncover their root causes.

Theoretical Foundations of Sociology in Addressing Social Problems

Sociology employs various theoretical perspectives to study and address social problems:

• Structural-Functionalism: Examines how social institutions contribute to societal stability. It views social problems as dysfunctions or disruptions in the social system. For example, unemployment may be seen as a failure of the economic structure to provide adequate opportunities.
• Conflict Theory: Focuses on power dynamics and inequality, emphasizing how social problems arise from conflicts between different groups, such as the rich and poor or dominant and marginalized communities. Issues like economic inequality and caste discrimination can be analyzed through this lens.
• Symbolic Interactionism: Explores how individuals perceive and respond to social problems based on their interactions and interpretations. For instance, substance abuse may be understood by examining the stigma and societal labels attached to it.

These perspectives collectively offer a comprehensive understanding of social problems, enabling the development of targeted interventions.

Understanding the Causes of Social Problems Through Sociology

Sociology helps identify the underlying causes of social problems by analyzing social structures, cultural norms, and individual behaviors. For instance:

• Poverty: Sociologists examine systemic factors like unequal wealth distribution, unemployment, and lack of access to education. They explore how capitalism, globalization, and government policies perpetuate poverty.
• Gender Inequality: Sociological research highlights the role of patriarchal norms, gender roles, and discriminatory practices in maintaining inequality in various spheres, including work, education, and politics.
• Crime and Deviance: By studying socialization processes, peer influences, and economic disparities, sociology provides insights into why individuals engage in criminal behavior.

Through empirical research, sociology uncovers patterns and correlations that illuminate the societal roots of these problems.

Analyzing the Impact of Social Problems

Sociology emphasizes understanding the consequences of social problems on individuals and communities. For example:

• Health Impacts: Poverty and environmental pollution disproportionately affect the health of marginalized groups, leading to increased mortality rates and reduced quality of life.
• Social Disintegration: Issues like unemployment and crime undermine trust and cohesion within communities, weakening the social fabric.
• Intergenerational Effects: Discrimination and lack of access to resources perpetuate cycles of inequality across generations.

This analysis helps policymakers and stakeholders grasp the broader implications of social problems and prioritize interventions.

Role of Sociological Research in Addressing Social Problems

Sociology contributes to problem-solving by conducting empirical research and generating evidence-based solutions. Sociologists employ methods like surveys, interviews, case studies, and statistical analysis to study social problems. For example:

• Urban Poverty: Research on slum dwellers in metropolitan areas provides data on living conditions, access to education, and employment patterns, informing urban development policies.
• Crime Prevention: Studies on juvenile delinquency highlight the role of family dynamics and peer influence, leading to rehabilitation-focused approaches in the juvenile justice system.
• Education Inequality: Research on school dropout rates among marginalized communities informs policies to improve access to quality education.

By presenting objective data, sociology bridges the gap between academic inquiry and practical policymaking.

Developing Solutions Through Sociological Insights

Sociology not only diagnoses social problems but also suggests pragmatic solutions based on a deep understanding of societal dynamics. For instance:

• Advocating Policy Reforms: Sociological studies on caste-based discrimination led to the implementation of affirmative action policies in India, such as reservations in education and employment.
• Community-Based Interventions: Understanding the importance of local networks and cultural contexts, sociologists design grassroots initiatives to tackle issues like substance abuse or domestic violence.
• Awareness Campaigns: By analyzing public perceptions and attitudes, sociologists help design effective campaigns to address stigma around mental health or HIV/AIDS.

These interventions aim to empower individuals and communities while addressing systemic issues.

The Global Relevance of Sociology in Addressing Social Problems

Sociology’s relevance extends beyond local contexts, as it provides tools to address global challenges such as climate change, migration, and human trafficking. Sociologists collaborate with international organizations to study transnational issues and propose solutions. For example:

• Research on climate change examines its disproportionate impact on vulnerable populations, advocating for equitable adaptation strategies.
• Studies on migration explore the socio-economic impacts of displacement, informing policies on refugee resettlement and integration.

Sociology fosters a global perspective, promoting social justice and sustainable development.

Criticisms and Challenges

Despite its contributions, sociology faces challenges in addressing social problems effectively. Critics argue that sociological research can sometimes be overly theoretical, lacking immediate applicability. Additionally, political and institutional barriers may hinder the implementation of sociological recommendations.

However, these limitations do not diminish the discipline’s importance; rather, they underscore the need for greater collaboration between sociologists, policymakers, and other stakeholders.

Conclusion

Sociology is indispensable for studying and addressing social problems. Its theoretical frameworks, research methodologies, and evidence-based insights offer a holistic understanding of societal issues and their root causes. By emphasizing systemic solutions and advocating for social justice, sociology contributes to building equitable and inclusive societies. As social problems evolve in complexity, the relevance of sociology continues to grow, ensuring that societies can adapt and respond effectively to emerging challenges.

Scheduled castes are those castes/races in the nation and one of the most oppressed sections of the society. They experience extreme social, educational, and economic backwardness as a result of the long-standing practice of untouchability, as well as some others due to a lack of infrastructure and geographic isolation, and who require special consideration for the protection of their interests and for their accelerated socioeconomic development. According to the terms of Clause 1 of Article 341 of the Constitution, these communities were declared Scheduled Castes and given notification.

This article explains the Issues Faced by Scheduled Castes is important for UPSC IAS exam preparation.

Issues Faced by Scheduled Castes

Social issues

• Untouchables or Scheduled Castes have historically had a number of limitations or issues.
• These issues were related to the ideas of contamination and purity. In society, the untouchables were assigned a very low status.
• Hindus of high caste kept their distance from them on a social level. Numerous necessities of life were withheld from them, as opposed to high-caste Hindus. When it came to food and drink, they were reliant on Hindu custom.
• Untouchability is still a widespread practice in India even though the caste system has been formally abolished under the country’s current laws.
• The majority of villages in Rajasthan forbid members of the Scheduled Caste from entering the temple or using the public well.

Political Issues

• The untouchables were scarcely involved in political activities.
• They were not granted a voice in India’s politics, government, or general governance, and they were not permitted to occupy any public office. They were denied political representation and rights.
• They received the right to vote for the first time during the British era. Following independence, the Harijans/Tribes were also granted equal political opportunity and privileges.
• These Communities have not yet developed into a cohesive political force.

Economical issues

• They experienced several economic issues. They experienced a great deal of financial difficulty and were not adequately compensated for their service.
• Untouchables were historically denied access to their own lands. They were prohibited from operating any businesses.
• They were forbidden from working in any of the occupations that individuals from other castes were doing.
• The untouchables were required to perform heavy agricultural work, clean the streets, remove dead animals, and pursue any career in accordance with their abilities.
• Most of them were labourers who lacked land. They laboured in the fields owned by high caste Hindus.

Civic Disabilities

• Avoidance of using public spaces.
• For a very long time, the untouchable castes were not allowed to utilise any public spaces or amenities including village ponds, wells, temples, hotels, hostels, schools, hospitals, lecture halls, closets, etc.
• In the beginning, they were compelled to reside on the fringes of the cities and villages.
• They are still physically separated from other people. In South India, limitations were placed on the way people built their homes, the kinds of clothes they wore, and the decorative patterns they used.
• They were not allowed to cover the upper body with clothing made by tailors.

Educational Issues

• In the beginning, they were prohibited from enrolling in school. They were not allowed to study Sanskrit.
• Public schools and other educational facilities were shut down in their honour. The bulk of them are still illiterate and uneducated.
• They are required to clean the restrooms and frequently have to sit outside of the classroom at public schools where they are not permitted to serve meals to members of higher castes.
• Students frequently face discrimination, and this is true even at campuses when the majority of professor positions designated for them are empty.
• The recent suicides of Rohith Vemula and Payal Tadvi lend credence to the aforementioned allegations of discrimination against Dalit students.

Religious issues

• Even now, the SCs experience religious disadvantages. In many regions, they are not permitted to enter temples. The Brahmins who provide their priestly services to the lower castes are ill-equipped to preside over rituals for the castes considered to be “untouchable.”
• They don’t even submit to these castes’ obligations as “untouchables.” Due to taboos, the Harijans were unable to listen to or recite the Vedic mantras, which are said to be more pure.
• The Brahmins did not serve the untouchables, nor were they permitted access to the temples. They lacked standing to offer sacrifices to the Gods and Goddesses in the temple.
• Only the upanishad mantras, which are regarded as being less pure, were allowed to be used.
• Additionally, they were frequently refused access to burial grounds.

Crimes against Scheduled Castes

• According to data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), there were 223 crimes against Scheduled Castes in 2015, up from fewer than 50 (per million people) in the previous ten years.
• Rajasthan has the poorest track record among the states, despite Bihar consistently being in the top 5 states for crimes against Scheduled Castes.
• The idea that the economic growth of Dalits might lessen crimes against them has been contested by several social scientists.
• Due to factors including fear of retaliation, police notification, inability to pay bribes sought by police, etc., the majority of crimes against dalits go unreported.
• Compared to women from other castes, girls experience violence at a younger age and more frequently. The National Family Health Survey found that by the age of 15, 33.2% of scheduled caste women have been physically harmed. For women in the “other” group, the figure is 19.7%.
• The ongoing violence is primarily caused by the ruling castes’ perception of impunity.
• Hate crimes frequently target women and girls from Scheduled Castes. With a pitiful 16.8 percent conviction rate, access to justice has been appalling. The conviction rate for offences against Dalits is typically just half that of other offences.

National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SCs)

• The National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SCs) is a constitutional entity in the sense that it is explicitly created under Article 338 of the Constitution.
• The National Commission for SCs was established in 2004. It is made up of a chairperson, a vice-chairperson, and three additional members.
• They are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal. The President also determines their terms of service and terms of office.

Function of National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SCs)

• To examine and monitor all things relevant to the constitutional and other legal protections for the SCs, as well as to evaluate their effectiveness.
• To investigate particular complaints about the denial of rights and safeguards for the SCs.
• Participate in and advise on the planning process of the SCs’ socioeconomic growth, as well as assess the status of their development under the Union or a state.
• To offer suggestions on the steps that the Union or a state should take to ensure the effective implementation of those safeguards and other measures for the protection, welfare, and socioeconomic development of the SCs.
• To carry out any additional tasks as the president may define in respect to the protection, welfare, development, and progress of the SCs.

Government Initiatives to Scheduled Caste Development

Protection of Civil Rights

• The Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 was passed in accordance with Article 17 of the Indian Constitution, and it stipulates that anybody who violates the untouchability laws faces a maximum term of six months in jail, a fine, or both.
• Infractions including prohibiting someone from visiting public temples or places of worship or from obtaining water from holy lakes, tanks, wells, etc. and other public sites are punishable under this Act.

The ‘Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013’ (MS Act, 2013)

• The government has given the elimination of dry latrines, manual scavenging, and the rehabilitation of manual scavengers into other occupations high importance.
• The act forbade the building of dry toilets as well as the use of human scavengers to physically clean dry latrines (that do not operate with a flush).
• prohibits the building or upkeep of unhygienic restrooms.
• Any person who violates the law’s ban on hiring or engaging in manual scavenging work faces a year in jail, a fine of INR 50,000, or both.
• prohibits someone from taking on or working a hazardous cleaning job for a septic tank or sewer.
• The Act’s offences are both cognizable and non-bailable.

The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

• The Act’s goals are to provide justice to these groups via proactive initiatives that allow them to live in society with dignity and self-esteem, free of fear, violence, or oppression.
• Punishment for atrocities committed by words, whether written or spoken, or by any other means that dishonour any late person held in high regard by members of the SC/ST is imprisonment for a term not less than six months but not less than five years, and a fine.

National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSCFD)

• The broad goal of NSFDC is to give financial support in the form of concessional loans to scheduled caste households, as well as skill-cum-entrepreneurial training to the target group’s youngsters who live below the poverty line.

Post Matric Scholarship for Scheduled Caste Students (PMS-SC)

• The Scheme is the Government of India’s single greatest intervention for educational empowerment of scheduled caste students.
• The government has approved a Rs 59,000 crore budget for a post-matric scholarship plan for students from Scheduled Caste communities.
• Almost 60% of the scheme’s cost will be financed by the central government, with the remainder borne by the states.

Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY)

• The ‘Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana’ (PMAGY), a Centrally Sponsored Pilot Scheme, is being implemented for the integrated development of Scheduled Castes (SC) majority villages with a SC population concentration of more than 50%.
• Primarily by convergent execution of appropriate Central and State Schemes; by providing these villages with Central Assistance in the form of gap-filling money to the tune of Rs.20.00 lakh per village, which can be supplemented by additional 5 lakh if the State contributes.
• By offering a gap-filling component, activities that are not covered by existing Central and State Government Schemes would be undertaken under the ‘gap filling’ component.

Other Welfare Initiatives

• Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojna
• National Overseas Scholarship for SCs
• Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship for SC Students
• Scheduled Castes Development Corporations
• National Safai Karamcharis Finance and Development Corporation (NSKFDC)
• Special Central Assistance (SCA) to Scheduled Castes Sub-Plan (SCSP)
• Credit Enhancement Guarantee Scheme for Scheduled Castes

Way Forward

• Providing education and awareness to the scheduled castes in order for them to take use of the many privileges available to them.
• Workers who have been rescued from manual scavenging are being rehabilitated.
• A system for tracking the nutritional status of SCs and STs. The idea calls for the district administration to do the monitoring on their own or with the assistance of volunteer organisations.
• It is vital to recognise and develop talent among boys and girls from SC, ST, and other BC groups, and to train them in special talent schools. This will allow them to compete on an equal footing with the rest of society.
• Sensitization of public officials to the need of treating all people fairly.
• Huge expenditures would be required in upskilling and educating dalits, and the government will need to generate a large number of new employment in the official sector while also eliminating obstacles to job creation.
• It is vital to increase the availability of stable-wage jobs for women in order to prevent socio economic exploitation.
• Upper caste attitudes must be changed through the employment of local Panchayat level authorities who must distribute knowledge about rights, legal requirements, and ensure communal areas are available to all.
• Schools, college management, faculty, and students must be made aware that education and textbooks may successfully impact behavioural change.

Conclusion

The Simon Commission (1927) developed the phrase “scheduled caste”. During the colonial period, the terms “depressed class,” “exterior caste,” and “untouchables” were frequently used to describe the scheduled castes. Gandhiji referred to them as ‘harijans,’ the more well-known scheduled castes. In 2016, there were 40,801 offences against SC/STs, according to the National Crime Records Bureau’s annual report for 2017. They are beaten, killed, and shunned by society, yet the media ignores them. People with money and knowledge who have just read a few articles are persuaded to assume that casteism no longer exists in India.

Terrorism, often referred to as the deliberate use of violence or intimidation to achieve political, ideological, or religious goals, is one of the gravest threats to modern human society. It transcends borders, cultures, and religions, disrupting peace, stability, and development. From indiscriminate bombings and targeted assassinations to cyberattacks and bio-terrorism, the methods and manifestations of terrorism have evolved, leaving behind trails of devastation. The consequences of terrorism extend beyond the immediate loss of life, creating long-lasting socio-political, economic, and psychological scars. It is not merely a criminal act but a global menace that undermines the very foundations of humanity.

The Nature and Characteristics of Terrorism

Terrorism is unique in its ability to instill fear and disrupt normalcy on a massive scale. Unlike conventional warfare, terrorism does not adhere to rules or boundaries. Its targets often include civilians, public spaces, and institutions, aiming to create widespread panic and force governments or societies into submission. Key characteristics of terrorism include:

• Ideological Motivation: Rooted in political, religious, or social ideologies, terrorism often seeks to impose beliefs or ideologies on others.
• Indiscriminate Violence: The victims of terrorism are frequently innocent civilians, including women and children, making it particularly heinous.
• Psychological Impact: Beyond physical destruction, terrorism seeks to create an atmosphere of fear and insecurity.
• Global Reach: Modern terrorism transcends borders, with networks like ISIS, Al-Qaeda, and others operating internationally, leveraging technology and globalization.

Historical Context of Terrorism

While terrorism is often associated with modern conflicts, its history dates back centuries. Ancient examples include the Zealots of Judea in the Roman Empire and the Assassins during the Crusades, who used violence to achieve political and religious aims. However, modern terrorism gained prominence in the 20th century with events such as:

• The Irish Republican Army (IRA): Aimed at achieving independence for Ireland from British rule.
• Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO): Engaged in activities to draw attention to the plight of Palestinians.
• 9/11 Attacks in the United States: A defining moment in modern terrorism, orchestrated by Al-Qaeda, leading to significant geopolitical consequences.

These events illustrate how terrorism has evolved from localized acts of rebellion to sophisticated, transnational operations.

Impact of Terrorism on Society

The repercussions of terrorism are profound and multifaceted, affecting individuals, communities, and nations.

1. Loss of Human Life and Property

Terrorism results in the tragic loss of lives, often targeting innocent civilians. Events like the Mumbai attacks of 2008, the 9/11 attacks, and the Paris attacks in 2015 serve as stark reminders of its devastating human cost. Beyond lives lost, terrorism destroys infrastructure, disrupts essential services, and leaves communities in ruins.

2. Economic Consequences

The economic impact of terrorism is staggering. Countries affected by terrorism face significant financial losses due to:

• Destruction of infrastructure.
• Reduced tourism and foreign investment.
• Increased defense and security expenditures.

For example, after 9/11, the United States spent trillions of dollars on counter-terrorism measures, while economies in conflict-ridden regions like Syria and Afghanistan have been crippled by terrorism.

3. Political Destabilization

Terrorism undermines political stability, often forcing governments into reactionary policies. It can exacerbate existing tensions, leading to civil wars or authoritarian measures. For instance, terrorism in Iraq and Afghanistan has contributed to prolonged instability and power vacuums exploited by extremist groups.

4. Social Fragmentation

Terrorism fosters division and mistrust within societies. It often targets ethnic, religious, or cultural groups, exacerbating communal tensions. For example, the rise of Islamophobia post-9/11 highlighted how terrorism can perpetuate stereotypes and deepen social divides.

5. Psychological Trauma

The psychological toll of terrorism is immense. Survivors, families of victims, and even distant observers often suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression. The constant fear of future attacks creates a climate of insecurity, disrupting normal life.

The Globalization of Terrorism

Modern terrorism has been amplified by globalization and technological advancements. Digital platforms, while fostering communication, have also become tools for terrorist propaganda, recruitment, and coordination. Groups like ISIS have exploited social media to recruit members globally, spreading their ideology across continents. Additionally, the rise of cyber-terrorism poses new threats, targeting critical infrastructure like power grids, financial systems, and healthcare networks.

State-Sponsored Terrorism and Its Ramifications

In some cases, terrorism is supported or facilitated by states to achieve geopolitical objectives. State-sponsored terrorism undermines international peace and breeds prolonged conflicts. For instance, Pakistan has faced international scrutiny for allegedly supporting extremist groups operating in India and Afghanistan. Such actions destabilize regions and hinder global cooperation.

Efforts to Combat Terrorism

Recognizing the existential threat posed by terrorism, nations and international organizations have undertaken extensive efforts to counter it:

• United Nations (UN): The UN has implemented various resolutions and conventions aimed at combating terrorism, including the establishment of the UN Office of Counter-Terrorism.
• Global Coalitions: Initiatives like the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS have been formed to dismantle terrorist networks.
• Counter-Terrorism Financing: Measures such as the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) work to cut off financial support to terrorist groups.
• Technological Measures: Advanced surveillance systems, artificial intelligence, and data analytics are being employed to detect and prevent terrorist activities.

Despite these efforts, terrorism continues to adapt and evolve, requiring constant vigilance and innovation in counter-terrorism strategies.

Ethical and Human Rights Concerns in Counter-Terrorism

While combating terrorism is essential, some counter-terrorism measures have raised ethical concerns. Instances of surveillance overreach, racial profiling, and indefinite detentions highlight the delicate balance between ensuring security and upholding human rights. For example, the US detention facility at Guantanamo Bay has been criticized for its treatment of detainees, undermining the principles of justice and human dignity.

Terrorism’s Broader Societal Implications

Beyond immediate destruction, terrorism challenges the very essence of human society by undermining peace, trust, and cooperation. It:

• Fuels cycles of hatred and revenge, perpetuating violence.
• Distracts governments from addressing other critical issues like poverty, education, and climate change.
• Erodes democratic values when fear leads to authoritarian policies.

The Path Forward

Tackling terrorism requires a holistic approach that addresses its root causes, such as poverty, inequality, political oppression, and ideological extremism. International cooperation, inclusive development, education, and dialogue are essential components of this strategy. At the same time, empowering communities to resist radicalization and fostering interfaith and intercultural understanding can create a resilient society.

Conclusion

Terrorism is indeed a curse for human society, threatening lives, freedoms, and the progress of nations. It exploits divisions, fuels violence, and leaves lasting scars on communities and economies. While significant efforts have been made to combat this menace, the global community must remain united in its resolve to eradicate terrorism in all its forms. By addressing its underlying causes and promoting peace, justice, and equality, humanity can strive toward a future free from the shadow of terrorism.

Crime against women is a pressing global issue that undermines the principles of equality, justice, and human rights. It refers to any act of violence, exploitation, or abuse targeted at women, primarily because of their gender. These crimes include domestic violence, sexual harassment, rape, trafficking, acid attacks, dowry-related violence, and more. Despite progress in gender equality, the prevalence of crimes against women remains alarmingly high, affecting millions worldwide. Such crimes not only harm individuals but also have far-reaching consequences for families, communities, and societies as a whole.

Nature and Forms of Crimes Against Women

Crimes against women manifest in various forms, each reflecting different socio-cultural, economic, and political dimensions:

1. Domestic Violence:
   Domestic violence is one of the most pervasive forms of violence against women. It includes physical, emotional, sexual, and psychological abuse by an intimate partner or family member. The National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) in India revealed that nearly 30% of women aged 15-49 experienced spousal violence, highlighting its widespread nature.

2. Sexual Harassment and Assault:
   Women frequently face harassment in public spaces, workplaces, and educational institutions. The term “Eve-teasing” trivializes the serious issue of public sexual harassment. Sexual assault and rape remain some of the gravest crimes, with victims often facing stigma, isolation, and inadequate support. High-profile cases like the 2012 Nirbhaya gang rape in India have drawn attention to the severity of the problem.

3. Human Trafficking:
   Women and girls are disproportionately affected by human trafficking, often sold into forced labor, domestic servitude, or sexual exploitation. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), women constitute nearly 49% of trafficking victims worldwide.

4. Dowry-Related Violence:
   The practice of demanding dowries has led to widespread violence, including physical abuse and even death. In India, over 6,000 dowry-related deaths were reported in 2020 alone, reflecting the deadly persistence of this practice.

5. Acid Attacks:
   Acid attacks are a particularly brutal form of violence aimed at disfiguring and traumatizing women. Victims often face lifelong physical, emotional, and social consequences. Countries like Bangladesh and India have seen significant cases of acid violence, prompting stricter regulations on the sale of acid.

6. Cybercrimes:
   With the advent of digital technology, crimes against women have expanded into cyberspace. Cyberbullying, stalking, revenge pornography, and threats of violence online disproportionately target women, creating new challenges for law enforcement and legislation.

Causes of Crimes Against Women

The root causes of crimes against women are deeply entrenched in societal structures, norms, and attitudes.

1. Patriarchy and Gender Inequality:
   Patriarchal systems reinforce male dominance and female subordination, perpetuating violence and discrimination. Women are often seen as weaker or inferior, making them vulnerable to exploitation.

2. Cultural and Social Norms:
   Many cultures normalize violence against women, considering it a private matter. Practices like honor killings, female genital mutilation, and child marriage reflect the deep-seated misogyny in some societies.

3. Economic Dependence:
   Women’s economic dependence on men, exacerbated by limited access to education and employment, leaves them vulnerable to abuse and exploitation.

4. Weak Legal Systems:
   Inadequate laws, poor enforcement, and corruption in judicial systems often allow perpetrators to escape justice, emboldening them to commit crimes without fear of consequences.

5. Lack of Awareness and Education:
   Many women are unaware of their rights or lack the resources to seek help. This ignorance, coupled with societal stigma, often prevents them from reporting crimes.

Impact of Crimes Against Women

Crimes against women have far-reaching consequences, affecting individuals, families, and societies.

• Physical and Mental Health:
  Victims often suffer severe physical injuries, trauma, and long-term health complications. The psychological toll includes post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety.

• Economic Costs:
  Women who are victims of violence often face job loss, reduced productivity, and increased healthcare costs, contributing to economic instability. Societies also bear economic burdens in the form of healthcare, legal proceedings, and rehabilitation services.

• Social Consequences:
  Crimes against women erode social cohesion and trust. They perpetuate cycles of violence and inequality, undermining efforts toward gender equality and empowerment.

• Generational Impact:
  Children who witness violence against their mothers are more likely to experience psychological issues and may perpetuate similar behaviors in adulthood.

Legislation and Initiatives to Combat Crimes Against Women

Countries worldwide have implemented various laws and policies to address crimes against women.

1. International Frameworks:
   The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 5 (Gender Equality) highlight global commitments to ending violence against women.

2. National Laws:

   • In India, laws like the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005), Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (2013) post-Nirbhaya, and the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961) aim to address various forms of violence.
   • The Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) in the United States provides resources and protection for victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and stalking.

3. Helplines and Support Services:
   Many countries have established helplines, shelters, and counseling centers to support victims. For instance, the 181 Women Helpline in India offers emergency assistance.

4. Educational Campaigns:
   Governments and NGOs conduct awareness campaigns to challenge patriarchal norms, promote gender equality, and encourage victims to report crimes.

5. Technological Solutions:
   Apps like Safecity and Himmat help women report harassment and access emergency services, leveraging technology to ensure safety.

Challenges in Addressing Crimes Against Women

Despite efforts, significant challenges remain in combating crimes against women:

• Underreporting: Fear of stigma, reprisal, and mistrust in law enforcement often discourage women from reporting crimes.
• Slow Judicial Processes: Delays in trials and convictions weaken the deterrent effect of laws.
• Cultural Resistance: Deep-rooted patriarchal attitudes hinder the implementation of gender-sensitive policies.
• Resource Constraints: Lack of funding and infrastructure limits the reach of support services.

The Role of Society and Individuals

Addressing crimes against women requires collective action. Society must challenge misogynistic norms, promote gender-sensitive education, and support survivors. Men must play an active role in challenging toxic masculinity and becoming allies in the fight for equality.

Conclusion

Crimes against women are a blight on humanity, reflecting the failure to uphold justice, equality, and dignity. While significant strides have been made in addressing these crimes, much work remains to be done. Governments, civil society, and individuals must unite to create a world where women can live free from fear and violence. By challenging discriminatory norms, strengthening legal frameworks, and fostering a culture of respect, society can overcome this persistent issue and move toward a more equitable and just future.

• The Indian Constitution recognizes OBCs as socially and educationally backwards, with entitlements to reservations in employment and education. 
• The Supreme Court mandated a permanent body to address backward class complaints. 
• As a result, the NCBC Act was passed in 1993, establishing the NCBC. In 2018, the 102nd Constitutional Amendment Act added Article 338-B to the Constitution.
• Situation Assessment of Agricultural Households and Land Holdings of Households in Rural India, 2019 data: data shows that of an estimated 17.24 crore rural households, 44.4% were OBCs. 

Constitutional provisions for OBC’s

• The State is empowered to establish special arrangements for the progress of any socially and educationally underprivileged class, including the OBC, under Article 15(4) of the Constitution. 
• Because it believes that OBCs are not properly represented in the services of the State or the Central Government, the state is authorized under Article 16(4) to adopt legislation for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of OBCs.
• The President is given the authority to look into the situation of the underclasses by Article 340 of the Constitution. Till date, Two Backward Class Commissions were appointed i.e. Kaka Kalelkar commission and B.P. Mandal Commission. 

Schemes for OBC’s

Educational 

• Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Construction of Hostel for OBC Boys and Girls: For students from socially and educationally disadvantaged groups, particularly those from rural regions, the Scheme strives to provide dormitory facilities so they can pursue secondary and further education.
• National Fellowship for OBCs Students – Give OBC students financial aid so they may pursue superior higher education and get degrees like M.Phil. and Ph.D.
• Scheme of Free Coaching for SC and OBC Students: The goal of the Scheme is to offer economically disadvantaged Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) applicants high-quality tutoring so they may participate in competitive examinations and be successful in landing a suitable job in the public or private sector.

Socio- Economic  

• New Swarnima for Women – Under the scheme loan (Maximum 2 lakhs)is given to women belonging to backward classes having income less than 3 Lakhs..
• Mahila Samridhi Yojana – Micro Finance Scheme for women with rebate in interest. Financial Assistance up to cost of Rs. 1,40,000/- is provided.
• Shilp Sampada – By offering training and financial aid, this program aims to improve the technical and entrepreneurial abilities of the Backward Classes.

Institutional Measure

National Commission for Backward Classes

• The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment established it as a statutory entity in 1993. 
• Article 338B was included as part of the 102nd Amendment of 2018 and was given constitutional status. Indra Sawhney & Others v. Union of India led to the creation of the commission.

Functions

• To examine and monitor all matters relevant to the SEBC’s safeguards, as well as to assess the effectiveness of such safeguards.
• To look into particular issues regarding the SEBC’s loss of rights and protections. Reports on how such protections are operating are to be given to the President.
• To make recommendations for actions that should be done to ensure that safeguards and other measures are implemented effectively for the protection, welfare, and socioeconomic development of SEBC.
• To take part in, provide advice on, and assess the socioeconomic growth of the educationally and socially disadvantaged classes. The NCBC has civil court authority.

Limitations 

• Non-Binding:  It is anticipated that the National Commission for Backward Classes won’t offer social justice systems that are reliable and efficient. The government is not required to abide by the NCBC’s recommendations.
• Lack of authority: It cannot handle the current issue of demands from other castes to be listed as BCs since it has no obligation to define what is considered to be backward.

• SC directives have been ignored: The Supreme Court’s requirements for an expert body are not included in the new NCBC’s makeup. OBCs are underrepresented in numerous government committees, commissions, boards, and other forums.

Way Forward

• As required by the SC, the composition must represent the characteristics of an expert body.
• The results of the caste census and the commission’s recommendations must be made public knowledge by the government.
• The gender sensitivity and stakeholder representation of the commission’s membership should be reflected in its makeup.
• In order to ensure that only the really underprivileged segments of society benefit from reservations, vote-bank politics should make way for value-based politics.

OBC Reservation and sub categorization

• The Second Backward Class Commission was established by the Government of India (GOI) in 1979. In a paper that was submitted in 1980, it advocated for a 27% quota for OBCs. In 1990, the government approved it.
• In Indra Sawhney case (1992), the Supreme Court affirmed the OBC reservation but disallowed the so-called “creamy layer” of economically affluent OBCs. They are therefore ineligible for the advantages of reservations.
• As a result, OBCs made up 10.01 percent of Class B, 8.37 percent of Class A, and 17.98 percent of Class C in the Central Government Services in 2013.Their representation in CPSEs increased from 16.6% in 2004 to 28.5% in 2014.
• Meanwhile, OBCs’ poorest subgroups have not received benefits from reservations. As a result, the need for subcategorization within the OBCs has drawn considerable attention.

The Justice Rohini Commission

• Following which, in 2017, the President of India established a panel to examine the sub-categorization of other backward classes under the leadership of Retd. Delhi High Court Chief Justice G Rohini.  
• The commission has proposed to divide OBCs into four subcategories numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4 and split the 27% quota into 2, 6, 9 and 10%, respectively. 
• Creating subcategories within OBCs for the reservation in order to guarantee “equitable distribution” of representation among all OBC communities is known as subcategorization of OBCs.

Conclusion

• OBC subcategorization is essential to ensuring social justice for the majority of underdeveloped communities. In order to maximise social justice for OBCs, it is important to strive for an early, transparent, and equitable implementation of OBC sub-categorization. This will ensure that marginalised sub-castes receive the benefits they deserve.

Social problems have been analyzed scientifically. We will examine some of the theoretical approaches which present universal explanations for all types of social problems.

1. Social Disorganization Approach:

Social disorganization is a condition of a society, community or group in which there is a breakdown of social control, or of a social order, or of formal and informal norms that define permissible behaviour. It is char­acterized by the lack of co-operation, common values, unity, discipline and predictability.

Warren (1949:83-87) has described it as a condition involving:

(a) Lack of consensus (disagreement about group purposes),

(b) Lack of integration of institutions (often working at cross purposes), and

(c) Inadequate means of social control (preventing individuals from playing their individual roles due to confusion).

Elliott and Merrill (1950:20) have defined it as a process by which relationships between members of a group are broken or dissolved. Social disorganization occurs when there is a change in the equilib­rium of forces, a breakdown of the social structure so that the former pat­terns no longer apply, and the accepted forms of social control no longer function effectively.

This disruptive condition of society, which is evi­denced by normlessness, role conflict, social conflicts, and demoralization, increases social problems. For example, increasing in­dustrialization, spread of education, and women taking up paid work have affected the relations between husband and wife, and between par­ents and children.

Many of the old norms which governed the intra-family and inter-family relations seem to have broken down. Many people feel frustrated and unhappy. This is the condition of social disor­ganization, in which changes in the basic conditions of life, causing breakdown of traditional norms, have resulted in widespread discontent­ment and disillusionment. In other words, change has disrupted the organization of the formal system of behaviour. Talking of social disor­ganization in slum life, Whyte (1955:268) has referred to deviant or non-approved group organization in slums.

However, according to one school of thought, the state of social dis­organization does not always create social problems. For example, during Hitler’s regime, Germany was not a disorganized society nor dur­ing Stalin’s regime, was the Soviet Union in a state of disorganization; yet many conditions in these countries were shocking “deviations from the social ideal, demanding social action”, that is, there were social problems.

Reacting to this view, some scholars say that even if the social disorganization theory may not explain all social problems, it does ex­plain some of the social problems, for example, mental illness may not be a symptom of a disorganized society but corruption in the society does lead to the malfunctioning of institutions, lack of perfect consensus and the evasion of social control by some citizens.

In employing the social disorganization approach to social problems (Horton and Leslie, 1970:33), one looks to factors like: What were the traditional norms and practices? What were the major changes that made them ineffective? What are the old rules which have broken down par­tially or completely? What is the nature and direction of social change? Who are the disgruntled groups and what solutions do they propose? How various do proposed solutions fit in with the trend of social change? What may become the accepted rules in the future?

2. Cultural Lag Approach:

Culture lag is a situation in which some parts of a culture change at a faster rate than other related parts resulting in the disruption of integra­tion and equilibrium of the culture; for example, the material culture changes more rapidly than the non-material culture in industrial societies through rapid advances in science and technology (Ogburn, 1966).

The theory of culture lag, in particular holds that in modern societies there has been a tendency for change in the political, educational, family and religious institutions to fall behind technological changes. It is thus easy to see how culture lag can create social problems. Even after rapid indus­trialization in the last quarter of the nineteenth century and in the first quarter of the twentieth century, some people were so influenced by the rigid restrictions of the caste system that they refused to work with mem­bers of other castes in the industries and preferred to remain unemployed and poor.

The first quarter of the twentieth century, thus, remained a pe­riod of culture lag. It took more than a generation to adapt ourselves to technological development in agriculture and industry. Our social insti­tutions, thus, retained the traditional flavour whereas technology advanced in the world. Though the culture lag theory explains some of the social problems (like AIDS, population explosion, etc.), it does not explain all social problems. It, therefore, cannot be accepted as a universal explanation of all social problems.

3. Value Conflict Approach:

A value is a generalized principle of behaviour to which the members of a group feel a strong, emotionally-toned positive commitment and which provides a standard for judging specific acts and goals. Each member of the group is expected to remain committed to the values accepted by the group. Values, thus, provide the generalized standards of behaviour. Ex­amples of values are equality, justice, communal harmony, patriotism, mobility, collectivism, compromise, sacrifice, adjustment and so forth. Because of the strong emotional feeling attached to values and because they serve as standards for judging concrete goals or actions, they are often regarded as absolute (Theodorson, 1969: 456).

Different groups have different systems of values. Incompatibility between the values of two or more groups to the extent that the role per­formance of individuals is interfered with is called ‘value conflict’. This state of conflict may last only a short while or it may be a persistent problem.

For example, conflict in values of workers and employers leads to industrial unrest, strikes and lockouts; or conflict in values between land owners and landless labourers leads to agrarian unrest or agricul­tural labourers’ movements; or the liberal businessmen may believe in encouraging hard work, thrift, honesty and ambition and may reward these virtues financially, but on the other hand, the conservatives may differ profoundly with this view and may believe in the profit motive and individual initiative. Liberals and conservatives thus differ not only on matters of policies but more profoundly on those of values.

The value conflict theorists like Waller, Fuller, Cuber and Harper hold that clashes in value system are of basic importance in the origin and development of social problems. Waller (1936:924) has referred to the conflict between ‘organizational’ and ‘humanitarian’ values. The former favour private property and individualism, while the latter are vo­taries of remedying the misfortunes of others. But this theoretical approach is too vague.

The pro-pounders have not explained their views in concrete details. It is true that our current values overemphasize money and material possessions and this attitude encourages corruption, smuggling, drug trafficking, black-marketing, and taking of bribes but problems like white-collar crime cannot be re­duced to a conflict of values.

The problem of divorce may be the result of value conflict but all family problems cannot be explained merely in terms of disagreements between husband and wife or parents and children. Agreement on common values helps in maintaining harmo­nious interpersonal relations in family or outside it but it is not the only thing needed for family stability or group success.

Thus, the value conflict theory may be useful in some areas like economics, in the analy­sis of social problems, but it certainly cannot be accepted as a universal explanation. On applying the value conflict approach, questions which are gener­ally asked (Horton and Leslie, 1970:40) are: What are the values that are in conflict? How deep is the value conflict? What groups in the society hold to each of the competing values? How powerful are they? Which values are more consistent with other larger values such as democracy and freedom? What value sacrifices would each solution require? Are some problems insoluble at present because of certain irreconcilable value conflicts?

4. Personal Deviation Approach:

Deviation is non-conformity to social norms. It is different from abnor­mal behaviour because the latter connotes psychological illness rather than social maladjustment or conflict. Thus, people who deviate from social norms are not necessarily mentally ill. In the social disorganization approach to social problems, one looks to the rules that have broken down and the changes that have taken place because of the breaking of the rules. In personal deviation approach, one looks to the motivation and behaviour of the deviants who are instru­mental in causing the problems.

Two factors that need explanation in the personal deviation approach are:

(i) How does personal deviancy de­velop?

(ii) What types of personal deviation are frequently involved in social problems?

Personal deviancy develops because of either:

(a) An in­dividual’s inability to follow generally accepted norms, or

(b) An individual’s failure to accept generally accepted norms.

The first is caused because of a person’s emotional, social or biological deficiency, that is, some persons are so constituted biologically, emotionally, or so­cially that they are incapable of adhering consistently to generally accepted standards. The socially deficient do not truly violate norms; rather they manifest an inability to learn and follow the norms. The cause of emotional deficiency is bio-psychological. These deviants that constitute social problems and also contribute to problems often require medical, psychiatric and environmental or social therapies.

On the other hand, an individual’s failure to accept social norms has something to do with deficiency in socialization. These individuals, though have learnt the norms and values like honesty, truthfulness, integrity, justice and co­operation, they cannot put them into practice.

They remain disposed to telling lies, cheating, exploiting, and defaming others when it suits their pur­poses. Their deviance does not produce any guilt-feeling or shame in them. They may change sides abruptly and completely on a social issue if it serves their purpose. They care little whether social problems exist and whether they are solved or not so long the situation can be used for their vested interest.

Horton and Leslie (1970:35-36) have referred to three types of per­sonal deviations:

(i) Deviation that results from conformity to norms of diverse reference groups. Because of cultural variability, most people are exposed to different sets of norms that may be in conflict with one an­other. For example, a person may belong to one religion or caste but his professional role may literally force him to deviate from the norms of his religion/caste. Similarly, a clerk as well as an officer may accept bribe because it serves economic interests,

(ii) Deviation that results from the existence of deviant sub-cultures, for example, the criminal norms in slum areas of large cities,

(iii) Outright deviation from generally ac­cepted norms. Deliberately hiding one’s income while, filling income tax returns provides a good example of this type of deviation.

In applying the personal deviation approach to social problems, the questions asked (Horton and Leslie, 1970:37) are: What deviant per­sons/groups are involved? Are deviants themselves the problem or they help creating the problem? What deviant sub-cultures are involved? What alternatives are there for dealing with the deviants?

5. Anomie Approach:

This approach was propounded by Merton. Anomie is a condition char­acterized by the relative absence or weakening or confusion of norms and values in a society or a group. The concept of anomie was originally developed by Durkheim to explain division of labour and suicide but it was Merton who used this concept 41 years after the publication of Durkheim’s book Suicide to explain deviant behaviour in terms of functioning of social and cultural structures in the society (Merton, 1938:672-73). Anomie involves a breakdown in the cultural structure, occurring particularly when there is disjunction between cultural norms and goals and the socially structured capacities of members of the group to act in accordance with them.

Anomie is the counterpart of the idea of social solidarity. Just as so­cial solidarity is a state of collective ideological integration, anomie is a state of confusion, insecurity and normlessness. According to Merton, the disjunction between goals and means and the consequent strain leads to the weakening of men’s commitment to the culturally prescribed goals or institutionalized means, that is, to a state of anomie.

Merton maintains that people adapt themselves to this disjunction either by re­jecting the cultural goals or the institutionalized means or both. He gives four varieties of deviant behaviour. Merton, thus, locates the sources of strain not in the characteristics of individuals but in the culture and/or social structure.

He says, “the social problem arises not from people fail­ing to live up to the requirements of their social statuses but from the faulty organization of these statuses into a reasonably coherent social system” (Merton and Nisbet, 1971:823). However, Merton’s theory is incomplete and inadequate. All social problems cannot be perceived as the result of the responses to strains or mode of adaptation and adjustment.

Introduction 

“A brave, frank, clean-hearted, courageous, and aspiring youth is the only foundation on which the future nation can be built.” – Swami Vivekananda

The youth represents the future of the country. Their constant desire to learn new things and modern outlook towards science and technology will lead the country forward in new innovations and technological advancements. Young people are innocent brains, they can be shaped into effective leaders to serve the interests of the country. Hence, India gave much importance to the proper education of children in recent times. But the increasing delinquent behaviour among the children may cause difficulty in this process.

According to the reports of the National Crime Report Bureau (NCRB), 31,170 cases were reported against juveniles in 2021, a 4.7% rise from 29,768 cases reported in 2020, and 76% of these crimes were committed by juveniles between the age group of 16-18. The rapidly increasing juvenile delinquency cases have become a huge concern for the country. The following article provides comprehensive information about the issue of juvenile delinquency, various types, causes, consequences, relevant statutes and preventive measures taken by the government in regard to the problem. 

What is juvenile delinquency 

Juvenile delinquency refers to the involvement of minors below the age of 18 in illegal activities that can hamper the proper functioning of law and order in a country. A juvenile is an individual who has not attained the age of majority. The statutory age of majority is different in every nation. In India, the age of majority is eighteen.

A person is said to be a delinquent when he is not in accordance with societal norms and values. A juvenile delinquent is treated differently from an adult criminal. When a juvenile engages in any anti-social activities, it is presumed that he lacks the mental maturity to take proper decisions but this is not the case with an adult. An adult is fully aware of his actions and the consequences of them. Therefore, emphasis is laid on rehabilitation of juveniles rather than punishment.

Vandalism, theft of items from any store and initiating or involving in a fight that causes injury to the public are some of the common examples of juvenile delinquency.

Legislation dealing with juvenile delinquency 

The juveniles are governed by separate legislation due to their limited mental and social development. However, India did not have a structured juvenile system from the start.

Juvenile rehabilitation system before independence

Before independence, juvenile crimes were governed by the existing customary laws. But with the increase in juvenile delinquency day by day, the necessity for special legislation for juveniles was felt by the government. In light of the issue, the British government passed the first juvenile legislation, the Apprentices Act, 1850. According to the Act, minors between the ages of ten and eighteen who commit petty offences shall be treated separately, and the convicted juveniles will be placed as apprentices in trade.

A few other laws passed prior to independence also had provisions related to juvenile delinquency. Section 82 of the Indian Penal Code, 1860, provides immunity to children under seven and exempts them from prosecution. This doctrine of “doli incapax” forms the basis for this Section, according to which the children do not possess the mental capacity to commit any crime on their own. Section 83 of the IPC provides that a child above the age of seven and below the age of twelve who has not reached sufficient maturity cannot be prosecuted.

The Reformatory School Act, 1876 was enacted to transform the attitude of juveniles and provide reformatory provisions relating to juvenile offenders. The Court can direct delinquents below the age of sixteen who have been sentenced to imprisonment to attend the reformatory school instead of sending them to prison. But the offender should be shifted to local prisons after attaining the age of eighteen. The Act provides provisions for the treatment and rehabilitation of juvenile offenders.

In British India, there was no uniform national juvenile legislation for regulating the actions of children. Nevertheless, a few provinces, like Bombay and Madras, have their own juvenile legislation.

After Independence

After independence, the Juvenile Justice system was reorganised. The Children’s Act was enacted in 1960 with the objective of providing care, protection, education, and rehabilitation for neglected or delinquent children. Article 15(3), 21A, 24, 39(e), 39(f), 45, and 47 of the Indian Constitution promote children’s welfare and secure their bright future. 

Juvenile Justice Act, 1986

The government enacted the Children Act, 1960, to establish a structured juvenile justice system applicable to the whole of India, but there was no uniformity in the enforcement of the act. The Supreme Court in the case of Sheela Barse v. Union of India (1986), recommended the central government to replace the Children Act, 1960, with a uniform juvenile act for the trial of children below the age of sixteen years.

In accordance with the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (Beijing Rules 1985), the government enacted the Juvenile Justice Act, 1986. The Juvenile Justice Act came into force on 1st December 1986. A few provisions of the Act are enacted based on the Children’s Act. The main object of the Act is to provide a comprehensive legal framework for delinquent and neglected juveniles. 

The Act aims at the promotion of care, protection, welfare and the prevention of the occurrence of juvenile delinquency. The Act also aims at establishing Juvenile Homes, Children’s courts, and Juvenile Welfare Boards. The Act defines juveniles as boys below sixteen and girls below eighteen years of age.

Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000

The principal aim of the Juvenile Justice Act, 1986, is to bring the Indian juvenile justice system in compliance with the UN standard of 1985. However, this aim was not accomplished. The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Convention on Children’s Rights in 1989, and India ratified it in 1992, which led to the formulation of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000.

The most significant change made by the Act was to rephrase the definition of a juvenile as a minor who has not reached the age of eighteen years. This change raises the age of juveniles from sixteen years to eighteen years. The main purpose of this change is to treat juveniles differently from adults. The Act also substituted the phrase “juvenile delinquency” with “the child in conflict with the law” and “neglected child” with “the child in need of care and protection”.

The Act aims at the establishment of observation homes and juvenile welfare boards. In addition to that, the Act also aims to establish the Child Welfare Committee. Section 31(1) of the act confers the committee with final authority to dispose of the cases for the care, protection, and rehabilitation of children and provide them with a healthy environment to exercise their human rights.

The Act also aims for the creation of a juvenile police unit in every district. The child welfare officer at every police station is provided with adequate training to handle juveniles. The Act prohibits death sentences and life imprisonment for juveniles.

Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015

The infamous 2012 Delhi gang rape case, commonly known as the Nirbhaya rape case, had a significant influence on the enactment of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015. In this case, a 23-year-old woman was brutally raped by six men; one of them was a juvenile at the time. 

This horrific incident led to widespread protests from the entire nation, and doubts were raised in regard to the efficiency of the Juvenile Justice Act of 2000. The government passed the Act with the view of clarifying all the concerns raised with regard to the competence of the existing law. 

The Act continues the Children’s Welfare Board and Children’s Welfare Committee and revives the Juvenile Court for every district, which was omitted in the 2000 Act.

The most significant change brought about by the 2015 Amendment to the Juvenile Justice Act is the categorization of offences. The offences are classified into three categories:

1. Heinous Offences: Offences for which the minimum punishment under the Indian Penal Code or any other law is imprisonment for a period of seven years or more. (Section 2(33) of the Juvenile Justice Act). 
2. Serious Offences: Offences for which the punishment under the Indian Penal Code or any other law is imprisonment for a period between three and seven years. (Section 2(54) of the Juvenile Justice Act)
3. Petty Offences: Offences for which the maximum punishment under the Indian Penal Code or any other law is imprisonment for a period that may extend up to three years (Section 2(45) of the Juvenile Justice Act).

Section 15 of the Act mentions that any juvenile in conflict with the law in the age group of 16 – 18 shall be tried as an adult if the crime falls within the category of heinous offences. However, a juvenile cannot be awarded  life imprisonment or the death penalty, according to Section 18 of the Act. 

The Juvenile Justice Board will conduct a preliminary assessment of the mental and physical capability of the juvenile before the child is tried as an adult. The board includes experienced psychologists and psycho-social workers to assess the behaviour of children. 

The Supreme Court in the case of Barun Chandra Thakur v. Master Bholu (2022) stated that the juvenile who will be tried as an adult must have the ability to understand the future consequences of the act of which he was accused. The court further mentioned that the consequences are not only confined to the immediate consequences of the offence but also the consequences that the victim and his family would suffer, only then a juvenile can be tried as an adult.

In the case of Rajiv Kumar v. State of Bihar (2018), the Patna High Court held that the preliminary assessment cannot be conducted for any other offences that are not covered under the definition of “heinous crimes”. 

Factors contributing to juvenile delinquency

There are many factors that lead to delinquent behaviour in children. The following factors are the primary causes of the development of anti-social behaviour in juveniles. 

Social factors

The social life of an individual has a long-lasting effect on the individual. Family and peer groups are two major components of the social life. Among all other factors, the family has a vital role to play in the behaviour of a person. Children spend the majority of their time with the family, they observe parents’ actions and tend to imitate or repeat them in their day-to-day life. 

Parent’s failure to express their feeling to their children and constant conflicts within the family will lead to the loneliness in the child. In this process, they may seek bad company. On the other side, strict parenting styles and extreme restrictions will make them rebel against the accepted norms and values. Children who suffer physical or mental violence at a young age are more likely to engage in crimes.

After family, children spend most of their time with their peer group. Peer groups are formed to provide companionship to each other. Generally, peer groups promote stability and generosity in an individual, but the same can have a negative impact on the juvenile if they are in a bad companionship.

Economic factors

Poverty is one of the major causes for juveniles to engage in delinquency. The greedy desire to become rich in a short span can influence individuals to participate in illegal activities. Every person aims to raise their economic status, but due to the storage of opportunities and resources in a legal way forces an individual to pursue their dreams in the illegal and anti-moral method.

Education will impart rational thinking skills, discipline, good behaviour and the difference between legal and illegal to the children. But many families due to their poverty are unable to send their children to schools and colleges, instead, they are asked to assist their family financially. In the process, they get addicted to alcohol and drugs. Due to the lack of formal education, these juveniles fail to distinguish between good and evil and eventually get attracted to criminal activities.

Psychological factors

The crime commission is not always influenced by external forces, at times, disturbances within the person also feed the anti-social mentality. Emotional disturbances can lead to distorted thinking, extreme behaviour and unusual mood swings among individuals.

A person with low self-esteem is more likely to indulge in deviant behaviour as compared to a person with higher self-esteem. A juvenile with low self-esteem has a negative perception of themselves and is constantly frustrated by it. Rejection and hostility by others can lead to extreme behaviour in low self-esteemed juveniles. Emotional disturbances in families and a lack of affection and support from parents and peer groups are the major reasons for young adults’ low self-esteem.

A few times, jealousy can manifest itself as interpersonal conflict and give rise to feelings of revenge. Adolescents tend to show more acts of jealousy than adults due to their limited mental maturity. 

Children suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional disorder, or any other mental health disorder are prone to display extreme aggressive behaviour and engage in intentionally annoying behaviour. 

Types of juvenile delinquency 

Howard Becker broadly classified juvenile delinquency into four types, i.e., individual, group-supported, organised and situational, based on the way the delinquent behaviour is carried out and the underlying social context. 

Individual delinquency 

Individual delinquency is used to describe the behaviour of a child who engages in criminal activities on their own accord without any assistance from others. Psychiatrists have made major contributions towards the study of individual delinquency. According to them, individual delinquency arises from psychological problems.

According to Doctor Healy, the primary cause for the display of such behaviour is the feeblemindedness of the delinquent. The intellectual imparity of a child makes him unable to conform to moral norms set by society, which forces the child to adopt criminal behaviour.

Children adopt their behavioural patterns by visualising their immediate environment, making the family a significant factor in determining the child’s behaviour. Family environment, lifestyle, and relationship dynamics influence the child’s mental and intellectual development. A child risks developing an anti-social attitude if parents fail to provide the expected love, compassion, and support. Poverty, lack of education, drug usage, and the criminal background of the child’s family are the main forces that raise violent and anti-social behaviour among children.

Heredity is also one of the factors leading to delinquent behaviour in teenagers. Children inherit negative behavioural traits from their ancestors. However, a change in the environment of the child will reduce the development of those criminal traits.

In the Barun Chandra Thakur v. Master Bholu (2022) case, a 16-year-old killed a 7-year-old boy by slitting his throat in the toilet of Ryan International School. The case was transferred to the Juvenile Justice Board from the Central Bureau of Investigation in view of the age of the accused. According to the social investigation report of the accused, he was aggressive, short-tempered, less stable, and often consumed alcohol. The board, after conducting the preliminary assessment, was of the opinion that the accused has the mental capacity to commit an offence and can be tried as an adult. However, many appeals were filed against the order, and the Supreme Court held that the power to make a preliminary assessment lies with the Children’s Court and Juvenile Justice Board, and the Court cannot delve into this matter.

Group-supported delinquency 

Group-supported delinquency refers to the behaviour of a child who engages in anti-social activities in companionship with others. Delinquents develop this behaviour under the influence of the culture prevailing in their immediate neighbourhood and social groups outside the family. According to the reports of the United Nations, two third of the total cases of juvenile delinquency are committed by teenagers who group themselves into gang-like organisations.

Frederick Thrasher, in his work “Gang’s Theory”, discusses group-supported delinquency. Each group has a unique behavioural pattern distinct from other groups, and the members incorporate it into their personalities. During this process, the groups generate animosity towards each other and disseminate criminal techniques to safeguard and promote their interests.

Peer associations are formed among same-aged people. Teenagers devote more time to peer groups than their families. Adolescents are prone to criminal tendencies because they lack adult mental and intellectual maturity at that age.

An individual is willing to take part in any immoral or unethical act that is against the norms of society to get accepted by the group. Parents fail to exercise their control as the child begins to consider the opinions of peers more highly than those of their parents.

Organised delinquency 

Organised delinquency is committed by a group of young people formally organised to engage in criminal activities. These organisations have a hierarchical structure and are guided by the established values and norms of the group. Albert Cohen was the first person to mention organised delinquency. In the book “Delinquent Boys: Culture of the Gang”, Albert Cohen developed the theory of subculture. According to Cohen, the delinquent subculture is the primary reason for juveniles’ involvement in crime.

Subcultures emerge as the result of existing socioeconomic disparities in society. The working-class individual who wants to achieve success and pursue their goals is constantly confronted with middle-class demands and expectations; they soon realise that the rigid social structure and low social rank prevent them from reaching their goals. Inequalities in society compel the individual to reject the existing societal norms and values and join a subgroup to achieve his goals.

Cloward and Ohlin, in their book “Delinquency and Opportunity” pointed out that youngsters who fail to adjust to their inability to achieve success through legitimate means adopt the illegitimate procedure. Juveniles blame the societal order for their failure rather than their inability. A group of individuals who have faced similar experiences and have a typical attitude of hatred towards the existing system will form a deviant subculture. These delinquent subcultures emerged in America in the 1950s. Drug trafficking among children is a prime example of organised delinquency in India. Juveniles are hired by these organised groups to deliver drugs and substances, and they are often paid in drugs.

Situational delinquency 

In the types mentioned above of delinquencies, the causes for the commission of the crime by juveniles are deep-rooted. They are driven by psychological, social, or cultural factors. But situational delinquency is not deep-rooted; rather, the cause and means of control are relatively simple.

An individual who indulges in anti-social activities because of the limited impulse control or pressure caused by family and societal restraints. In comparison with other types of delinquency, situational delinquency is considerably easier to control.

David Matza referred to Situational Delinquency in his book “Delinquency and Drift”. According to Matza, every person has criminal tendencies that are suppressed in accordance with societal norms. A juvenile is caught between the delinquent world and the conventional world; despite having knowledge about the norms and values of society, the juvenile bends towards deviant behaviour due to his permissive temptations. Matza called this process “Drift”.

David Matza states that techniques of neutralization enable drift. Neutralization is the process through which youth justify their delinquent acts. However, the concept of situational delinquency is not developed and is not given much relevance to the problem of juvenile delinquency. This type of delinquency only finds its place in writing, not in reality.

Rehabilitation for juvenile offenders

The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, aims to adopt child-friendly methods for the disposal of petty cases while emphasising rehabilitation and reintegration of juvenile offenders. Rehabilitation is the process of reforming and restoring an individual back into society after engaging in delinquent behaviour.

The act stipulates that the observation homes and childcare institutions will serve as rehabilitation centres for children in conflict with the law and children in need of care and protection, respectively.

Juveniles between the ages of 16-18 years can be tried as adults for the commission of heinous crimes with the approval of the juvenile justice board and children’s court. But the act created special child care institutions for juveniles involved in delinquent behaviour for petty offences. These juveniles are not subjected to corporal punishment or humane treatment; instead, rehabilitation facilities are provided. 

Juvenile rehabilitation is carried out with extreme care and the utmost diligence, given that they are still in the early stages of mental development. Delinquents are given compulsory education in compliance with Article 21A of the Indian Constitution and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. 

Delinquents are given the opportunity to obtain new knowledge and enhance their skill sets. They are provided with the opportunity to participate in recreational activities such as sports, or practice skills such as music, art, dance, and cultural events. Every delinquent is provided with mental health care facilities and counselling in accordance with their needs. Childcare institutions provide referral services for de-addiction, vocational training, and disease treatment, whenever required for the personality development of the child.

The process of rehabilitation and reintegration is carried out according to the individual plan of the delinquent. The Act also involves foster care, sponsorship, and adoption in this process whenever deemed necessary.

Juveniles are placed under the protection of foster care to provide a healthy family environment and love and affection for the child. The foster families will be responsible for the health, nutrition, and education of the child.

The Act enables the state government to financially assist childcare institutions and families in the form of sponsorship to meet medical, educational, and other needs to improve the quality of the child. The Act also made provisions for adoption to restore the right to family for orphans and abandoned children.

Children leaving childcare institutions and special homes at the age of eighteen after their term of rehabilitation will be provided with financial support for the reintegration of juveniles back into society. 

Prevention of juvenile delinquency

The future prosperity of a nation relies on the well-being and effectiveness of the youth, hence, it is essential to limit delinquent behaviour among juveniles to ensure the future of the country. Some of the preventive measures include the following

Education programme

Quality education has a positive impact on individuals, making them less likely to commit crimes. Schooling imparts knowledge and life skills, which make them self-reliant and keep juveniles from engaging in anti-social activities. Juveniles get knowledge of societal norms, values, civil rights, and duties, which discourages them from breaching the law. Government investment in imparting free and quality education plays a significant role in reducing delinquent behaviour among juveniles.

Healthy family environment

Parent-child relations, family relationship dynamics, and the approach to parenting have a long-lasting impact on the mental health of the child. Establishing strong communication between parents and children is crucial for the prevention of delinquent behaviour in children at an early stage. 

Removal of inferiority complex

Fear, inferiority complex, and apprehension that someone might hurt him create a wrong impression on the juvenile and harm others out of this fear. Parents and other family members should create a solid foundation so that the children can feel secure and share any kind of uneasiness.

Recreational programmes

Recreational activities do not reduce the occurrence of anti-social activities but can play a major role in reducing delinquent values. Individuals with anti-social behaviour experience extreme anger, impulsive behaviour and a lack of self-control, while recreational activities provide relaxation and help juveniles to socialise with others. Juveniles discover their hidden talents like music, dance, drama, and art, and we encourage them to pursue them. 

Publicity and awareness campaigns

Newspapers, magazines, media, radio, and social media can serve as important tools for creating awareness and imparting knowledge to the public. Government and non-governmental organisations can educate the public through awareness campaigns about the issue of juvenile delinquency. 

Conclusion 

It is crucial to protect the interests of juveniles and reduce the occurrence of juvenile delinquency in the best interest of future generations because they play a significant role in the progress and advancement of the nation. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, is a progressive step in light of the issue but lacks proper implementation. Many juvenile homes established under the act do not have proper infrastructure and basic facilities like water, clean sanitation, and adequate staff. There is also a lack of awareness and confusion regarding the new amendments to the statute and the treatment of delinquents. The government should take stringent measures to ensure the proper implementation of the Act.

Due to the complexity of the issue, the government should also prioritise preventative measures in addition to enforcing existing laws. The government can launch awareness campaigns, special lectures, and various programmes in schools and colleges to educate people about juvenile delinquency.

Scheduled Tribes (STs) are legally recognised groupings of people who are among India’s most disadvantaged socioeconomic categories. Scheduled tribes have primitive traits, a separate culture, geographic seclusion, apprehension about interacting with the greater population, and a backwardness. As a result, individuals will experience several difficulties throughout their lives. There are several tribal concerns in India, including social, religious, educational, and health-related challenges.

This article explains the Challenges faced by Scheduled Tribes are important for UPSC IAS exam preparation.

Challenges faced by Scheduled Tribes

Loss of Natural Resource Control

• As India industrialised and natural resources were discovered in tribal inhabited regions, tribal rights were compromised and state control over natural resources supplanted tribal control.
• The tribals felt torn from their traditional moorings and without a solid source of sustenance as the notions of protected woods and national forests gained traction.

Lack of Education

• Most indigenous schools lack basic facilities, including instructional materials and even sanitary amenities.
• Because schooling does not provide an immediate economic benefit, tribal parents prefer that their children work.
• The majority of tribal education programmes are written in official/regional languages that indigenous pupils do not understand.

Displacement and Rehabilitation

• The government’s acquisition of tribal territory for the development of essential industries like massive steel factories, power projects, and enormous dams resulted in wide-scale displacement of the tribal community.
• The tribal enclaves of Chotanagpur, Orissa, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh were hit the worst.
• These tribals’ migration to metropolitan regions gives them psychological issues since they are unable to acclimatise to urban lifestyles and ideals.

Health and Nutrition Issues

• Because of economic backwardness and unstable livelihood, tribals confront health issues such as the prevalence of diseases such as malaria, cholera, diarrhoea, and jaundice.
• Malnutrition-related issues such as iron deficiency and anaemia, as well as high newborn mortality rates, are also prevalent.

Gender Equality

• The degradation of the natural environment, notably the loss of forests and a fast diminishing resource base, has an effect on women’s status.
• The opening of tribal belts to mining, industries, and commercialization subjected tribal men and women to the harsh processes of the market economy, resulting in consumerism and the commoditization of women.

Tribal women

• The tribal forest economy is predominantly a women’s economy, and women are disproportionately impacted by corporate exploitation of their ancestral lands.
• In impoverished tribal communities, large-scale migration has indicated an increase in the flow of young women to metropolitan areas in pursuit of jobs.
• Their living circumstances are filthy, their pay is pitiful, and indigenous women fall prey to unscrupulous brokers.
• There are a lot of anaemic women among the tribes. As of March 31, 2015, there were 6,796 sub-centres, 1,267 primary health centres (PHCs), and 309 community health centres (CHCs) in tribal communities across India.
• They have been the primary targets of sexual harassment by plantation managers, supervisors, and even other male employees.

Cultural Defacement

• Tribes are being forcibly incorporated into society, which is causing them to lose their distinct cultural characteristics and endangering their habitat.
• Isolated tribes like the Sentinelese remain hostile to strangers. In these circumstances, the government must implement a “eyes on, hands off” approach.
• Because of the influx of strangers into the Jarawa hamlet, the population is rapidly declining (The Andaman Trunk Road, among other projects, has cut into the heart of the Jarawa reserve).
• Denotified, semi-nomadic, and nomadic tribes have yet to be included to the list of Scheduled Tribes.
• Their customary activities (snake charm, street acrobatics with animals) are now prohibited, and no other means of income are available.
• Certain tribes have been designated as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groupings (PVTGs) (formerly known as Primitive Tribal Groups) due to their higher “vulnerability” even within tribal groups. In India, there are 75 such tribes.

Identity Erosion

• Tribals’ ancient institutions and laws are increasingly clashing with contemporary institutions, raising concerns among tribals about retaining their identity.
• Another cause for concern is the extinction of tribal dialects and languages, which signals a loss of tribal identity.

Migration

• Migration is defined as the migration of people from one location to another in pursuit of work or other essentials of life that are not accessible in the place of birth.
• Some of the social and non-economic drivers of migration include a lack of sufficient education, social prejudice, open conflict, media influence, and a desire to be free of societal control.
• In this sense, it differs from relocation that is compelled rather than free. In general, tribals have gone to towns and cities in quest of jobs and better possibilities.

Problem of Maoist Extremism

• This is an extremely harmful byproduct of tribal society’s poverty and exploitation, notably in India’s central regions.
• The Maoist organisation found suitable ground to take root and develop in India’s impoverished central regions.
• They entice the young unemployed from the tribal regions to join their army for a pittance of money, a uniform, and a pistol. The Maoists have undermined the development of these areas.
• In the remote areas, these hardline organisations are essentially establishing a parallel government. The government’s efforts to crush these organisations have been largely futile.

Steps to Mitigate the Challenges Faced by Scheduled Tribes

Improvements to Healthcare Facilities

• Mobile medical camps would play a significant role in improving outreach to distant tribal people.
• One of the most pressing needs of indigenous women is the provision of emergency transportation to health care facilities for obstetric treatment.
• Health professionals from tribal communities may serve as a connection between healthcare institutions and tribal communities, guiding patients, explaining physicians’ prescriptions, assisting patients in taking advantage of welfare programmes, and counselling them on preventive and promotive health practices.

Improvements in Food and Nutrition Facilities

Large-scale opening of Mini-Anganwadis with much looser rules and extension of Village Grain Banks into tribal communities are two ways that may be used to ‘Reach the Unreached’ in tribal regions.

Employment and Income Generating

• Tribal regions should be provided with employment and income generation options, either through wage or self-employment, in order to increase their economic position and thereby free them from the shackles of poverty and indebtedness.
• Efforts should also be made to offer microcredit for self-employment initiatives and to create NREGA-like schemes where there are no existing job prospects.
• Minor forest produce collection and selling should also be promoted.

Water Resource Management

• The National Water Policy should be more effectively operationalized in tribal regions, to include the extension of irrigation infrastructure and the provision of potable water, with a focus on watershed management, rainwater collection, and water-saving techniques.
• Mass education and public awareness among rural and tribal populations for successful water resource management and pollution prevention.

Empowering Tribal Women

• Effective steps to enhance the situation of tribal women should be implemented, including:
  • Encouragement of leadership in Joint Forest Management and Panchayati Raj Institutions
  • Legal and administrative efforts to curb the practise of persecuting women accused of witchcraft, as well as a huge campaign to raise societal awareness and rehabilitate affected women, ideally through women’s groups.

Infrastructure Development

• The government can work with tribal tribes to improve infrastructure in their communities.
• Meghalaya is referred to as a living root bridge. They are cultivated by trained Khasi and Jaintia tribes who have perfected the ability of producing root bridges across elevated banks of streams that pass through Meghalaya’s deep jungles.

Social Inclusion

• The tribal people’s social exclusion is mostly due to discrimination at the social and institutional levels, which has resulted in their isolation, shame, and humiliation, and, as a result, self-exclusion within tribes.
• There is a tremendous need for awareness among India’s non-tribal people to acknowledge the capacity and dignity of tribes in order to safeguard the country’s unity and integrity, as well as the spirit of brotherhood.

Government Initiatives

Eklavya Model Residential Schools

• The primary objective of Eklavya Model Residential Schools is to provide quality middle and high-level education to Scheduled Tribe (ST) students in remote areas.
• Not only to enable them to take advantage of reservation in high and professional education courses, as well as jobs in the government, public, and private sectors, but also to provide them with equal access to the best educational opportunities as the non-ST population.

Tribes India

• The Ministry of Tribal Affairs’ Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED) is involved in the marketing development of tribal products such as art and craft items. TRIFED has been distributing tribal items on a consignment basis through its “TRIBES India” stores and state emporia outlets.
• TRIFED has devised a method for purchasing art and craft goods manufactured by accredited indigenous producers.
• Individual tribal artists, tribal SHGs, and organisations/agencies/NGOs dealing with tribals are among the suppliers who have been appointed as TRIFED suppliers in accordance with the standards for supplier empanelment.
• The items bought by TRIFED are subsequently offered through its marketing platform of “Tribes India”.

Tribes India E-Marketplace

• Tribes India E-Marketplace is India’s largest marketplace for handicrafts and organic items.
• The programme intends to enrol 5 lakh tribal producers in order to source diverse handcraft, handloom, and natural food products from around the country and offer you the finest of tribal output.
• Individual tribal craftsmen, tribal SHGs, and organisations/agencies/NGOs dealing with tribals are among the suppliers.
• The platform allows tribal suppliers to sell their items through their merchants and distributors,
• TRIFED’s network of Outlets and eCommerce partners, and their e-Marketplace account.

Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana

• The Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana (VKY) for tribal welfare has been introduced by the Government of India’s Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
• Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana strives to provide an enabling environment for the indigenous people’s need-based and outcome-oriented holistic development.
• This procedure entails ensuring that the intended benefits of commodities and services under various programs/schemes of the Central and State Governments reach the target populations through resource convergence via the proper institutional structure.
• It applies to all tribal people and locations with tribal populations across the country.

Van Dhan Scheme

• The Van Dhan Scheme is a collaboration between the Ministry of Tribal Affairs and TRIFED.
• It was started on April 14, 2018, with the goal of increasing tribal revenue via the value addition of tribal products.
• The initiative will be executed at the national level by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs and TRIFED as the Nodal Agency.
• The State Nodal Agency for MFPs and District Collectors are expected to play pivotal roles in scheme implementation at the grassroots level at the state level. Locally, the Kendras are intended to be controlled by a Managing Committee (an SHG) composed of representatives from the cluster’s Van Dhan SHGs.

Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition Of Forest Rights) Act, 2006

• The Forest Rights Act (FRA) of 2006 acknowledges the rights of forest-dwelling tribal tribes and other traditional forest dwellers to forest resources on which these people rely for a range of requirements such as subsistence, habitation, and other socio-cultural needs.
• This Act recognises the STs’ symbiotic relationship with the woods, which is shown in their reliance on the forest as well as their traditional wisdom towards forest protection.

Tribal Development Report 2022 – Key Findings

• Tribals are the most deprived: Despite 70 years of independence, Adivasis are the most disadvantaged in terms of cleanliness, education, nutrition, access to drinking water, and education.
• Disturbances and Conflict in Tribal Regions: Tribal territories have also experienced significant disruption and conflict.
  • This is one of the reasons why many government assistance programmes and policies in these regions fail to take off. Both sides are affected by the area’s distress.
  • The research noted that indigenous tribes in India have been driven further away from alluvial plains and rich river basins towards the country’s hardest natural zones such as hills, forests, and drylands.
• Forest Conservation Act in 1980: After the passage of the Forest Conservation Act in 1980, the struggle was framed as one between environmental conservation and the needs of local Adivasi groups, creating a schism between people and forests.
• Domestic needs of local people were officially recognised for the first time in the National Forest Policy 1988.
• The Policy emphasised preserving their traditional rights and involving Adivasis in forest conservation. However, the shift towards a people-oriented orientation has not been mirrored by realities on the ground.
• Suggestions: It is critical to understand the unique characteristics of tribal societies in order to develop policies for them.
• Many tribal societies prefer to live in solitude and silence. They are bashful and will not approach the outer world on their own.
• Policymakers and leaders in the country must grasp this feature and then fight for the welfare of Adivasis in order to connect with them more effectively.

Conclusion

Scheduled Tribes (STs) are officially recognised groups of people who are among India’s poorest socioeconomic groups. Although the founding figures of the Republic of India were acutely aware of the disadvantageous position of tribespeople and made special provisions such as the Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Constitution, there have been growing concerns among tribal activists about a systematic erosion of tribal protections, harassment and suppression by the police, and a general state intolerance towards tribal autonomy.