The Varna Vyavastha system is the traditional social hierarchy outlined in ancient Indian society, classifying people into four primary varnas, or social categories, based on their roles and duties. Originating in Hindu scriptures, particularly the Rigveda, this system divides society into Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and traders), and Shudras (laborers and service providers). Each varna was expected to perform specific duties (or dharma), which contributed to the overall functioning of society.

The Varna system was originally intended to be a flexible division based on one’s abilities and skills, but over time, it evolved into a more rigid caste system, closely tied to birth rather than individual talents or qualities. This rigidity led to social inequalities and discrimination, particularly against lower castes and Dalits (those outside the varna system, also called “untouchables”), who faced severe restrictions in terms of occupation, social mobility, and interactions with other varnas.

Today, the Varna Vyavastha system is largely seen as an outdated social structure, with modern Indian law prohibiting caste-based discrimination. However, remnants of the system still influence social norms and interpersonal relationships, especially in rural areas. The Varna system remains a significant part of Indian social history and is often discussed in the context of social reform and the ongoing movement for equality in India.

National Integration in India is very important to enhance unity among all sections of society in a country like India, which is replete with diversity in many spheres of life. This article helps one understand the role of the education system, cinema, people from middle class background, working class, intellectuals, different multinational companies and media in promoting National Integration.

Role of Education in National Integration?

Education plays a key role as it changes our thoughts and ideas. Fortunately, in India, we have had very good educationists both before and after independence. School teachers play a great role in shaping the minds of young students in the country. Various characters in history such as Rani Laxmi Bai, Lal Bahadur Shastri, and famous slogans such as ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ have permeated into our collective consciousness over many years. The syllabus designed by NCERT with the help of eminent scholars has also contributed greatly in shaping the idea of India. Also, often students migrate to different parts within the country to pursue higher education at different universities. This has helped young minds to think beyond their regions, caste, and religion, Universities around the country, such as Delhi University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Osmania University, to name a few, have students enrolled from around the country, who within a short span, develop a pan-Indian sense that rises above any cultural or ethnic differences. Unfortunately, our student enrollments in higher education institutions is still very low, and only around 12-13% of our population have access to higher education, whereas in the USA, it is approximately 87%, and in Europe, it is more than 50%, even in China, it is approximately around 25%. Thus, one remains hopeful that in the near future, with the coming up of private universities, and efforts taken by the Government, higher education not only becomes more easily accessible but student enrollments in these institutions also go up. People from diverse cultural groups, and marginalized sections such as minorities, women, tribal groups, etc. who have been alienated in the past from the national mainstream, have gradually been aligning themselves with the mainstream, largely due to the efforts of an inclusive education system. In the words of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, “Right education open to all is perhaps the basic remedy for most of our ills”.

Role of Cinema, Sports, and Literature

Hindi and regional cinemas of the 1960s and 70s helped promote the idea of Indian nationalism, and the idea of secularism. Scriptwriters and directors were conscious towards promoting the idea of nationalism.  Movies which showcased love transcended cultural, regional, linguistic barriers, and caste barriers helped in shaping the idea of India. Movies also helped shape a secular India as characters enacted included a broad spectrum of religions, regional backgrounds, ethnicity, etc. It must also be remembered that just after independence, with scant entertainment options around, cinema was a very important source of entertainment for a large section of society. Thus, cinema which imbued the spirit of brotherhood, promoted unity, and the idea of secularism, helped shape the idea of India. The field of sports unfortunately in India has been a neglected area through much of our post-independent history, and stellar performances of our athletes in games such as the Olympics, Asian Games, and Commonwealth Games, has been largely due to their own individual brilliance. India has traditionally done well in hockey, but after the Olympics in Moscow, 1980, performance in hockey has been on a steady decline. Cricket, on the other hand has been able to take centre-stage of the national discourse on sports, and has undoubtedly united Indians. People from all sections of society stand united in support for the Indian cricket team in all competitions and versions of the game, be it traditional test cricket, One-day Internationals, or Twenty20. Literature has also played a leading role in promoting National Integration. One observes that in the field of literature, both English literature and regional literature reflected in the form of poems, short stories, etc. helped promote the national identity and lessen areas of conflicts arising due to differences in caste, region, etc. Patriotic literature by Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Prem Chand, Bharatendu Harish Chandra, and many others during the freedom struggle helped deepen and spread Indian Nationalism. Their renditions are still alive in the hearts and minds of people, and reinvigorate the feeling of unity in diversity among the people of India, even in the present day.

Contribution of Middle Class, Intellectuals, and Working Class

It is important to note that none of these classes can afford to confine themselves to a particular region. The middle class for example, is a very mobile community, and often migrate between states frequently, either for business, education, or career prospects. Cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Pune, Calcutta, etc. have people settled from diverse cultural and regional backgrounds and have made these cities their homes. This section of the middle class, can easily identify themselves with the idea of India. In Mumbai alone, one witnesses people from every region of India, many of whom have migrated there in search of opportunities. Although people migrating from smaller cities to larger ones face various issues, among them being they labeled as ‘outsiders’. However, their will to continue staying and fighting the odds, reflect their confidence in the concept of India. The same holds true for the working class as well. Similarly, the intellectuals, by their very nature of being liberals do not confine themselves within the limits of caste, class, religion and place. They are against the idea of conflicting values and rather work for the collective upliftment of mankind and humanity. Since the evolution of awareness of rights and oneness, we can trace multiple examples when the entire intellectual community has come forward for arbitrary actions of the state against the creative expression of individuals irrespective of caste, creed, religion and place. This allows the space for distinct expressions within a unified India.

Role of the Press/Media/Multinational Companies, etc.

Even before Independence, the press has been an active instrument in the formation of the idea of a unified India. Since independence, due to the tools offered by the Constitution such as freedom of speech and expression, the press and media have gained a substantial amount of autonomy and have been strengthened as an institution. They have made an enormous contribution in building and sustaining the integration of India as one unit in forms that are continuously evolving from printing press to radio to television to social media which caters to the aspirations and views of each generation. Other factors that have been as important as the ones above are the establishments of important institutions such as the State Bank of India, Postal services, Doordarshan, All India Radio, etc. which were important tools of furthering inclusiveness but have subconsciously also promoted and strengthened the idea of a unified India in the minds of our citizens. Hence, although the importance and significance of a region, religion, caste, etc. in the minds of people belonging to each of them cannot be undermined in India due to their historical footprint, however, at all given times, it is the national interest, which must supersede any prejudices towards the above.

Religion, as a fundamental social institution, is characterized by several essential features that shape belief systems and cultural practices worldwide. Here are some of the primary characteristics of religion:

1. Belief in the Sacred: Religions typically involve a sense of the sacred or divine, distinguishing between the sacred (holy, set apart) and the profane (ordinary, everyday life). This often includes deities, spirits, or spiritual forces that are revered and worshiped.

2. Rituals and Practices: Rituals are structured actions performed to honor the sacred and express faith. These can include prayers, ceremonies, fasting, and pilgrimages. Rituals help to maintain a connection to the divine and reinforce the beliefs of a religious community.

3. Moral and Ethical Guidelines: Most religions provide a code of ethics or moral framework for how followers should live, often based on scriptures or teachings. These guidelines serve to establish moral order and promote values like honesty, compassion, and justice.

4. Community of Believers: Religion fosters a sense of belonging among its followers, creating a community that shares common beliefs and practices. This social dimension reinforces the identity and solidarity of believers and often involves organized institutions such as churches, temples, or mosques.

5. Religious Experiences: Personal experiences and feelings of transcendence, such as enlightenment, visions, or a sense of unity with the divine, are common. These experiences often affirm and deepen individual faith and commitment.

6. Sacred Texts and Stories: Many religions have holy scriptures or oral traditions that convey the teachings, myths, and histories of the faith. These texts guide believers and provide the foundational narratives that shape religious identity.

7. Symbols: Symbols, such as the cross, crescent moon, or lotus, represent the core ideas and values of a religion. They hold significant meaning for followers, providing a visual representation of the faith.

8. Purpose and Meaning: Religion often addresses existential questions and provides a sense of purpose, meaning, and hope by explaining the nature of life, death, and the afterlife. It helps individuals cope with life’s uncertainties and find purpose beyond the material world.

These characteristics collectively define religion, shaping individual lives and societal values and playing a central role in cultural and historical development.

This is a famous quote by Jawaharlal Nehru on women. The status of women depicts the social, economic and mental condition in a nation. Women have been regarded as a symbol of spirituality in our scriptures. Yet, women were denied rights and equality in ancient Indian civilization. They have been treated badly and unequally to men. Social evils such as dowry, sati-system, child marriage, and female infanticide were widely prevalent in the early ages.  The spread of education and self-consciousness among women has led to their progress over the period. Women of today are empowered. Also, women are gaining advancements and success in each and every field. True female liberty is only achievable when people shift their restrictive attitudes and mindsets regarding women.

History of the Status of Women in India

Going back to our origins, we can see how vital women are to society, not only biologically, but also culturally. Women have been mentioned in our Vedas and ancient books since ancient times, and they have been assigned important positions. Because of the contributions of women, the texts of Ramayana and Mahabharat have been tremendously influenced and due to women, they may have become the most sacred of all.

But during the past few centuries, the conditions of women worsen. Previously, women were referred to as housekeepers. It was thought and passed down to others that women are meant to marry, take care of the house and their in-laws, and sacrifice all of their aspirations in order to realise the dreams of their husbands and children. Furthermore, women were kept out of school because families believed that only boys deserved to be educated and follow their aspirations. Women were married off at a young age, and occasionally without their consent. They have also been subjected to a slew of dehumanising practises, societal neglect, and rituals designed to limit them, and they are frequently considered commodities rather than human beings.

Women in India in Ancient Age

Women, in the early ages, were very educated but suffered from the evils of society. Some open-minded citizens like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and others worked for the wellbeing of women. Thus, the practices of sati, child marriage, and others were abolished. Various acts such as the Child Marriage Restraint Act were passed in this direction. Mahatma Gandhi also emphasized the abolition of child marriages.

Women were also provided training in martial arts. Moreover, women acquired a significant position in politics. Sarojini Naidu was a key figure in this context. She was the first Indian woman to become the President of the Indian National Congress and the governor of a state in India. Indira Gandhi was another woman who stood out in a male-dominated field. She became India’s first female Prime Minister and effectively led the country for fourteen years, contributing to domestic and financial progress.

Women in Free India

Gender equality

Women today are eager to take up professions and work. Thus, they enjoy equal respect and dignity in the family. Women in free India also enjoy equal pay for equal work in comparison to men. Also, there are provisions for maternity leave for them. Furthermore, females are provided equality of opportunity under Article 16 of the Constitution of India.

Educational Status

The girls in urban areas are almost at par in education with the boys. But there is a less educated female population in rural areas. This has also affected the social and economic development of rural India. The poor (hygienic facilities) facilities at school and lack of female staff have affected education. Kerala and Mizoram have a universal literacy rate.

Women and Politics

The maximum figure of female politicians in the world is from India. Women have occupied significant positions i.e. of President, Prime Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha and other high offices. “Indira Gandhi”, is the first female who held the office of the Prime Minister for 15 years.

Evils Against Women

The violence against women in India includes kitchen fires for want of dowry, sexual assaults, cases of rape, prostitution, throwing of acid. Also, the evils of child marriages are also widespread even today. Female infanticide, indecent behaviour, and honour killings add to the misery of the women. Also, sex-selective abortion is a deep-rooted evil leading to inequality in the sex ratio.

Current Status of Women in India

Following the development of the freedom movement across the nation, the ladies of the society began to emerge and burst through their shells. A larger proportion of women began to be given the opportunity to study and seek education. Currently, India does not have a shortage of women in the medical, technical, teaching, legal, or any other profession. India has seen an increase in the number of empowered women holding higher positions in various offices and organisations.

Women are involved in a variety of occupations and compete alongside males in a variety of disciplines such as technology, law, administration, teaching, and so on. Apart from traditional occupations, we have women who thrive in sports, such as P.T. Usha, Sania Mirza, P.V Sindhu, Mithali Raj, Mary Kom, Saina Nehwal, Dipa Karmakar, and others, who have represented and inspired many aspiring sportswomen in India.

We also have women who have had a significant impact on the art and entertainment industries since their inception, as well as cultural icons in many schools of art. Indira Gandhi, Vijay Lakshmi Pandit, Annie Besant, Mahadevi Verma, Nita Ambani, Sachet Kripalani, Amrita Pritam, Sushma Swaraj, Padmaja Naidu, Kalpana Chawla, Mother Teresa, Subhadra Kumari Chauhan, and others are some of the great Indian women leaders, social reformers, social workers, administrators, and literary personalities who have significantly changed the women’s status.

Rural life in India is defined by a unique blend of traditional values, agriculture-based economy, and close-knit communities. Indian villages, which make up a large part of the population, are known for their simplicity and slower pace of life compared to urban centers. Here are some key aspects:

1. Agriculture-Centric Economy: Agriculture is the primary livelihood for most rural households, with farming, livestock, and related activities supporting families. India’s rural economy is highly dependent on seasonal patterns and monsoon rains, which significantly impact crop yields and rural incomes. Small-scale artisanal trades like pottery, weaving, and carpentry also play a role in rural economies.

2. Community and Social Structure: Rural Indian life is heavily community-oriented. Villages often have well-defined social structures and a strong sense of collective identity. Extended families often live together, and family ties are crucial, influencing social standing and economic relationships. Social hierarchy, often influenced by caste, still plays a significant role in daily life and interactions.

3. Simple and Traditional Lifestyle: Rural life tends to be simple, with basic housing, traditional attire, and customary practices. Traditions and festivals, such as Diwali, Holi, and harvest festivals like Pongal and Baisakhi, are celebrated with great enthusiasm, reinforcing cultural values and community bonds. Village life often values contentment, modesty, and self-sufficiency.

4. Limited Access to Modern Amenities: Infrastructure like roads, healthcare, and education facilities may be limited or less developed in many rural areas. Although this is gradually improving, some villages still lack electricity, clean drinking water, and sanitation facilities, making access to these essential amenities a challenge for rural residents.

5. Education and Literacy Challenges: Educational opportunities in rural India are often limited, with some regions having high illiteracy rates and fewer educational institutions. Many rural children have to walk long distances to attend school, and poverty often pressures children into joining the workforce at an early age.

6. Dependence on Nature: Rural life is closely connected to natural cycles and resources. Farming activities, for example, are tied to seasonal changes and weather patterns. Traditional knowledge of farming, soil, and water conservation is often passed down through generations, helping villagers to live in harmony with the environment.

7. Changing Rural Dynamics: With increased access to technology, such as smartphones and internet, rural India is gradually integrating with urban markets and modern influences. Government schemes aimed at rural development and agricultural innovation are also fostering changes, introducing new methods of farming, better infrastructure, and access to banking.

8. Challenges of Migration and Poverty: Economic pressures have led many rural youth to migrate to cities for work, causing rural areas to experience an aging population and shifts in family structures. Persistent poverty and the need for employment opportunities remain ongoing challenges in many parts of rural India.

For the Indian students of Sociology, the study of the Indian family system deserves special attention, not only because they are born in Indian families but also for here the family system differs in material respects from the western family system. The family in India does not consist only of husband, wife and their children but also of uncles, aunts and cousins and grandsons.

This system, called joint family or extended family system is a peculiar characteristic of the Indian social life. A son after marriage does not usually separate himself from the parents but continues to stay with them under the same roof messing together and holding property in common.

The family has joint property and every person has his share in it since the time he is born. The earnings of all the members are put in a common fund out of which family expenses are met. Non-earning members have as much share as the earning members. The Indian family system is thus like a socialistic community in which everyone earns according to his capacity and receives according to his needs.

The family in India is based on patrilineal descent. Children are identified by name and allegiance with the father’s family. Property is passed from generation to generation within the father’s family.

The Meaning of Joint Family

Some Definitions of Joint Family are the following:

1. “ A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred.” —Karve
2. “We call that household a joint family which has greater generation depth than individual family and the members of which are related to one another by property, income and mutual rights and obligations.” —I.P. Desai
3. “The joint family consists of persons having a common male ancestor, female offspring not yet married, and women brought into the group by marriage. All of these persons might live in a common household or in several households near to one another. In any case, so long as the joint family holds together, its members are expected to contribute to the support of the whole and to receive from it a share of the total product.” —Davis
4. “In a joint family not only parents and children, brothers and step-brothers live on the common property, but it may sometime include ascendants and collaterals up to many generations.” —Jolly
5. “The Hindu joint family is a group constituted of known ancestors and adopted sons and relatives related to these sons through marriage.” —Henry Maine

Characteristics of Joint Family

On the basis of the above definitions, the chief characteristics of joint family are the following:

(i) Large Size:

The first characteristic of the joint family is its large size. A single family consists of only the husband, wife and their children. But a joint family consists of parents, children, grand children and other near relatives along with their women. It is a group of which several basic families live together at one and the same time.

(ii) Joint Property:

In a joint family, the ownership, production and consumption of wealth takes place on a joint basis. It is a cooperative institution, similar to a joint stock company, in which there is joint property. The head of the family is like a trustee who manages the property of the family for the material and spiritual welfare of the family members. The total earnings of all the family members are pooled together.

(iii) Common Residence:

The members of joint family usually live under the same roof. They may also live in separate houses in close proximity to one another. They eat the same food and wear the same type of clothes.

(iv) Co-operative Organisation:

The basis of joint family system is cooperation. A joint family consists of a large number of members and if they do not cooperate with one another it is not possible to maintain the organisation and structure of the joint family.

(v) Common Religion:

Generally the members of a joint family believe in the same religion and worship similar deities. They perform jointly the religious rites and duties. They celebrate all the festivals and social functions jointly. They also hold themselves jointly accountable for participating in social ceremonies like marriage, death and other occasions of family sorrows and rejoicing. They all share the family burden together.

(vi) A Productive Unit:

This feature of joint family is found among agricultural families. All the members work at one and the same field. They do the sowing and harvesting of the crops together. Even in the case of artisan classes all the members of a joint family do one and the same function.

(vii) Mutual Rights and Obligations:

The rights and obligations of the members of joint family are the same. None except the head of the family has special privileges. Every member of the family has equal obligations. If one female member works in the kitchen, the other does the laundry work, and the third one looks after the children. There is rotation of duties as well.

Origin of Joint Family System

It may not, however, be presumed that joint family system originated in India. This institution is said to be the outcome of the settling down of the Aryans in different parts of the world. We have similar institutions practically all over the world. As we have learnt before in the ancient Roman society, the supreme authority rested in the eldest male member of the family who, in administering the family affairs, was entitled to take all steps.

When the pastoral stage was over and the people began to live a settled life by tilling the soil, constructing the house and maintaining the patrimony, joint family system came into existence. Difficulties of communication and travel compelled all the members of the family to live together and carry on jointly the family occupation in agriculture or trade.

Over and above these causes the kinship idea and the religion emphasizing ancestor worship further made joint family a complex organisation catering to the spiritual and economic needs of the large family groups which composed the society. In other parts of the world while joint family system has disappeared, in India, it still continues though suffering heavy strains brought about by industrialization and urbanization.

Merits of Joint Family System

The following are the chief merits of the joint family system:

Ensures economic progress

It enables economic progress of the country since everyone in the family is guaranteed bare subsistence, a first condition of economic progress. Unless people are assured of food and shelter they would not devote themselves sincerely to the work of country’s progress. It is an essential condition of national progress that the citizens must at least get two meals a day. Joint family provides this to its members and thus enables them to devote themselves to nation’s progress.

Division of labour

It secures the advantages of the division of labour. Every member in the family is given work according to his abilities without being taxed unduly. Every phase of family’s life is managed by all members including women and children. Thus, during the harvest season every member of the family helps in harvesting the crops. No outside labour is required.

Economy

It secures economy of expenditure. Since things are consumed in large quantities they are secured at economic prices. Within small means a large family can be maintained if it lives jointly.

Opportunity for leisure

It provides opportunities for leisure to the members. The female members divide the household work and finish it within a little time spending the rest of it in leisure.

Social insurance

In the joint family the orphans find a comfortable asylum instead of being thrown out. Similarly, widows are assured of their proper living for whom remarriage in India is unthinkable. The joint family acts as a social insurance company for the old, sick and incapacitated.

Social virtues

It fosters great virtues like sacrifice, affection, co-operation, spirit of selflessness, broadmindedness among its members and makes the family a cradle of social virtues. Under the care of elders the undesirable and anti-social tendencies of the young are checked and they are prevented from going astray. They learn to exercise self-control. All members learn to obey family rules and respect their elders.

Avoids fragmentation of holdings

It avoids fragmentation of holdings and the evils inherent therein. It prevents property from being divided.

Socialism

According to Sir Henry Maine, the joint family is like a corporation where trustee is the father. Everyone in the joint family works according to his capabilities but obtains according to his needs. Thus it realises the socialistic ideal—from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.

Demerits of Joint Family

If joint family system has received the highest praise for its many advantages, it has no less been vehemently denounced.

The main defects of the system are said to be the following:

Home for idlers

Joint family is the home for idlers and drones as the non-earning members do not want to earn their livelihood. When a person can eat comfortably without exerting himself, he is unlikely to indulge in any strenuous activity. Mostly, in the joint family it happens that some people have to exhaust themselves while the others lead a life of utter lethargy.

Hindrance in the development of personality

In joint family there is very little opportunity for the fostering of individual autonomy or self-dependence. The whole environment of the family is not congenial for the growth of the individual because he is bound down by the minutest rules and regulations framed by the head of the family who looks upon men and women as children even when they attain adulthood.

Encourage litigation

The joint family system encourages litigation, for at the time of partition of common property generally disputes crop up which are not settled without a recourse being taken to law. In case of agricultural families partition leads to fragmentation of holdings which is harmful from the viewpoint of agricultural progress.

Leads to quarrels

It is the hotbed of quarrels and bickering especially among the female members. Generally, there is hatred and jealousy between the wives of brothers. There is continuous strife and fighting over the doings of children. There is also the clash of ideas and temperaments on account of which there are constant quarrels between the elder and young members of the family.

Privacy denied

In a joint family privacy is denied to the newlywed couple. The brides of the sons do not get an opportunity to develop their personality. They serve the entire family like slaves. They hardly meet their husbands during the day.

The invariable presence of other family members shames the bride and she cannot freely talk to her husband. Any natural love between husband and wife is prevented from blossoming. There is also no limit to the injustice done by the mother-in-law. In some cases this injustice becomes so inhuman and unbearable that women become fed up and commit suicide.

Unfavourable to accumulation of capital

It is not favourable to large accumulation of capital. When one has to share one’s income with large family, it is not possible to save much. The property of the family being jointly owned is sometimes allowed to go waste.

Uncontrolled procreation

In the joint family the responsibility for bringing up and educating the children is shared. No individual feels responsibility to control procreation because of the limited income of the family. The offspring of one member will be treated on the same footing as others. No distinction is made between the statuses of the family members. In this way no direct benefits occur to an individual in the joint family by practising family planning or earning more.

Thus the joint family system has got both its strong proponents as well as opponents. However, we are to remember that no institution is perfect and also that no institution full of defects can exist very long. The joint family system has been in existence since the society changed from the agricultural stage of economic development.

While the system is breaking down in cities, it still largely prevails in the villages especially among the agricultural families. Though there may be exceptions here and there, yet it cannot be said that the system has been completely abolished. It is no doubt true that the system once considered the pillar of stability is finding it difficult to withstand the dizzying pace of social mobility and the transformation of values.

Disintegration of Joint Family

The following factors are responsible for the disintegration of joint family system:

Industrialization

The joint family system is most suited to agricultural families. India today is on the way to industrialization. With the establishment of new factories in urban areas workers from the villages move to the cities which breaks the joint family.

Extension of communications and transport

As we saw above difficulties of communication and travel in ancient times compelled all the members of the family to live together and carry on the family occupation in agriculture and trade jointly.

Today when the means of communication and transport have been extended it is no longer necessary for men to stay with the family and carry on the family occupation. Now they go to the city and take up any other occupation or even living in the village adopt some other trade and when they adopt a trade different from the family trade, they establish a new home.

Decline of agriculture and village trades

The joint family system in India flourished in the days of yore when agriculture and trade in the villages were in a sound position. Today with the establishment of factories the commodities produced by the village craftsmen cannot compete in quality or price with those produced in factories with the result that the village industries suffer loss and after some time close down.

With the closing down of the village industry the workers move to the city. Further, more and more land is being acquired by the Government for setting up big public undertakings, creating new sectors for habitation and providing public amenities.

The population in the villages is growing at a faster rate than in the urban areas. Thus the pressure on land is high and not only the workers but land holders also are compelled to go to the city to find job there.

Owing to the onrush of people from the villages to the cities the Hindu joint family system breaks down. Besides the decline of agriculture and trade there are other causes as well which induce people to move to the city.

In the villages there are fewer facilities for entertainment and recreation, less opportunities for employment for the educated and inadequate opportunities for the education of children. A gentleman so called finds little attraction to stay on in the village.

Impact of the West

India today has been greatly influenced in her social outlook by western thought and ideology. Our modern laws relating to marriage and divorce have been enacted on western pattern. Our education is entirely foreign in outlook and approach.

We have begun to look at the family as a partnership and not as a sacrament. Our views especially of the young men and women on sex and family relations have undergone a change. The influence of individualism has made deep inroads in the Indian outlook.

New Social Legislation

The joint family system in India has been very much influenced by the new social legislations consisting of the Civil Marriage Act (1872), Hindu Marriage Act, (1955), and Hindu Succession Act (1956). The Civil Marriage Act enabled the adult boys and girls to marry against the wishes of their parents.

The Hindu Marriage Act enabled the women to seek divorce under certain conditions. The Hindu Succession Act gave the right of equal inheritance to women. All these acts have influenced the solidarity of the joint family and relationships between brothers and sisters, parents and children and husbands and wives.

K. S. Sambasivan, a contemporary Indian writer, dealing with the effect of the modern forces on the working class families of India writes.

“Industrialization has contributed much to family disorganisation. In its result most of the important ties that bind all family members together in an agricultural society began to loosen. Again, the worker unaccustomed to the work life in the factory also becomes disorganised and in such a condition is not able to enjoy the richness of the family. This condition affects his emotions also, leading him to seek pleasure through unnatural forces like alcohol, prostitution etc. Factory occupation has made members of the same family economically independent. The joint family, so common in India, is gradually disappearing.”

Most of the workmen when questioned by researchers express themselves against joint family system and prefer to live in separate families. It means that the joint family system under modern influence is weakening.

It is, however, to be remembered that joint family system in India has not completely died out. The causes of its disintegration are mainly social. The Indian people still keep intact the family attachment and live their traditional morality. Hindu sentiments are even today in favour of joint family.

Even in cases where family property has got divided and income of the family members is not pooled, the constituent householders consider themselves duty bound to participate in ceremonial celebrations like marriage, birthday, and religious functions. Such participation keeps the joint family feelings alive. The thinkers who criticize the system have not been able to appreciate it properly.

Compromise and mutual adjustment are the keynotes of the Indian joint family system. The joint family is not a place where individuality is crushed but it is a cooperative institution where every member does his duty under the guidance of the eldest members.

In it we have a synthesis of individual and common interests; here are inculcated social virtues which make man a good citizen and teach him to live for all. What is needed today is to find out the ways by which the virtues of the joint family system can be retained. And this will require the intelligent cooperation of rulers and social scientists aided by enlightened public opinion.

Casteism in India significantly influences politics, affecting electoral processes, policy-making, and social dynamics. In the political arena, caste groups form strong vote banks, where communities align their support with political parties that promise to address their specific social and economic concerns. Politicians often appeal to caste identities to secure votes, making caste-based alliances an essential part of election strategies. This alignment has led to caste-based reservations in education and employment, a system intended to address historical inequities but one that also fuels debates around social justice and meritocracy.

The intertwining of caste and politics can reinforce caste divisions, as leaders may exploit caste-based identities to consolidate power, instead of promoting national unity and development. Additionally, regional parties often emerge to represent the interests of specific caste groups, creating a fragmented political landscape. However, caste politics has also empowered marginalized communities, giving Dalits and other lower-caste groups a platform to voice their concerns, claim rights, and fight against discrimination.

While casteism continues to play a dominant role in politics, there is a growing call for a shift toward policies that transcend caste and focus on inclusive development for all social groups, promoting equality over division in India’s democratic framework.

India is renowned for its profound ethnic diversity, comprising a multitude of ethnic groups that contribute to the country’s rich cultural tapestry. An ethnic group is defined as a community of people who share common cultural traits, including language, religion, customs, and shared historical experiences. In India, ethnic groups often overlap with linguistic, religious, and regional identities, making the sociocultural landscape extraordinarily complex.

One of the most prominent ethnic groups in India is the Indo-Aryans, who primarily inhabit the northern and central regions of the country. They are characterized by the Hindi language and its various dialects, along with cultural practices influenced by ancient Vedic traditions. The Dravidians, another major ethnic group, predominantly reside in southern India. They speak languages such as Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam, and their cultural practices and traditions are distinct, rooted in ancient Dravidian history.

Indigenous tribes also represent a significant part of India’s ethnic diversity. The Scheduled Tribes (STs) encompass various tribal communities, such as the Gonds, Santhals, and Bhils, who maintain unique cultural identities and lifestyles that are often closely tied to their natural surroundings. These tribes have their own languages, customs, and belief systems, which differ significantly from mainstream society. The Indian Constitution recognizes and provides special protections for these groups, acknowledging their historical marginalization and the need for socio-economic development.

Religious affiliations often intersect with ethnic identities, creating additional layers of complexity. For instance, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, and Buddhists represent distinct ethnic groups with unique cultural heritages. The Muslim community in India, for example, comprises various ethnicities, including Shaikhs, Pathans, and Mohajirs, each with its own cultural practices. Sikhism, originating from the Punjab region, emphasizes a distinct cultural identity, with practices centered around the teachings of Guru Nanak and subsequent Gurus.

The impact of colonialism on India’s ethnic landscape cannot be overstated. British colonial rule exacerbated ethnic divisions by implementing policies that favored certain groups over others, leading to the entrenchment of communal identities. This legacy has persisted in the post-independence era, as political parties often appeal to specific ethnic groups to garner support, reinforcing divisions rather than promoting national unity.

In contemporary India, ethnic identity continues to shape social dynamics and political landscapes. Ethnic groups frequently mobilize to advocate for their rights, seek representation, and demand recognition of their cultural heritage. Movements for autonomy, such as those seen in Nagaland and Kashmir, reflect the desire of specific ethnic groups to preserve their identity and assert their political aspirations.

However, the interplay of ethnic identities can also lead to conflict and tension. Instances of ethnic violence and communal riots underscore the fragility of communal harmony in a nation marked by diversity. These tensions often arise from socio-economic disparities, competition for resources, and political manipulation of ethnic identities.

In conclusion, ethnic groups in India are integral to the country’s identity, reflecting a rich mosaic of cultures, languages, and traditions. While ethnic diversity is a source of strength, it also poses challenges for social cohesion and national unity. The recognition and appreciation of this diversity are essential for fostering an inclusive society where all ethnic identities are celebrated and respected. As India continues to evolve, the interplay of ethnic identities will remain a pivotal factor in shaping its social, cultural, and political landscape.

Urbanism is a broad term that refers to the study and practice of how cities and urban spaces are organized, designed, and inhabited. The rapid growth of cities has made urbanism a crucial field in understanding social, economic, political, and cultural transformations in modern society. While urbanism may often seem to focus on the physical attributes of cities—such as their buildings, streets, and infrastructure—at its core, it is fundamentally about human relationships, social interactions, and the power dynamics that unfold within these spaces. Urbanism is not only a study of spatial forms but also of the social processes that occur within these forms. Therefore, the concept of urbanism encompasses both the material and symbolic aspects of cities.

Urbanism goes beyond the mere study of urban geography or architecture. It involves examining how different groups of people coexist in urban spaces and how these spaces shape and are shaped by social norms, economic practices, political decisions, and cultural traditions. Urbanists often consider the city as a microcosm of society, where issues such as inequality, globalization, migration, and environmental sustainability manifest in particularly visible ways. This makes urbanism a highly interdisciplinary field, intersecting with sociology, geography, political science, economics, anthropology, and urban planning. Understanding urbanism is critical for analyzing the broader transformations of human societies in the 21st century.

Historical Development of Urbanism

Urbanism as a concept has its roots in the rise of cities and the increasing significance of urban spaces in human history. Early civilizations like Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, and the Indus Valley saw the birth of cities as centers of trade, culture, and political power. However, it was the industrial revolution of the 19th century that triggered the mass urbanization of human populations, as cities grew rapidly in size and economic importance. The influx of people to urban areas during this period led to significant changes in social structures, economic systems, and the physical design of cities. Urban sociology, as a formal academic discipline, emerged during this time to address the new social dynamics brought about by industrial urbanization.

One of the most influential early figures in urban sociology was Georg Simmel, whose essay “The Metropolis and Mental Life” (1903) examined the psychological effects of living in large cities. Simmel argued that life in the metropolis produced a sense of detachment and indifference among individuals, a response to the overwhelming sensory stimuli and social interactions characteristic of urban environments. Meanwhile, the Chicago School of Sociology, led by scholars like Robert Park and Ernest Burgess in the early 20th century, studied cities as living organisms, mapping out patterns of social organization and spatial segregation. The Chicago School’s “concentric zone model” depicted the city as a series of rings, with different social groups occupying distinct zones according to their socio-economic status. These early theoretical frameworks laid the groundwork for contemporary urbanism, highlighting the complex relationship between the physical layout of cities and social interactions.

Urbanization and Social Change

Urbanization refers to the process by which populations move from rural areas to cities, leading to the growth of urban areas and the transformation of social life. Urbanization is one of the defining characteristics of modernity and continues to shape the social, economic, and political landscape of the world. It is driven by a variety of factors, including economic opportunities, migration, and the concentration of resources in cities. However, urbanization is not just a demographic shift; it also involves profound changes in social life, including shifts in social norms, cultural practices, and power relations.

One of the key social changes associated with urbanization is the decline of traditional social structures. In rural societies, social life is often organized around kinship, community, and long-standing cultural practices. In contrast, cities are characterized by greater social mobility, diversity, and individualism. This shift can lead to both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, cities offer individuals greater freedom to pursue their own interests, careers, and lifestyles. On the other hand, the anonymity and fragmentation of urban life can lead to feelings of alienation, isolation, and social disconnection. This tension between individualism and community is a central theme in urban sociology, as scholars seek to understand how people navigate the complexities of urban living.

Purusharth Chatusthaya, a key concept in Hindu philosophy, refers to the four goals of human life that guide individuals in their pursuit of a meaningful and fulfilling existence. These four goals are Dharma (righteousness or duty), Artha (prosperity or wealth), Kama (pleasure or desire), and Moksha (liberation or spiritual enlightenment). Understanding the relevance of Purusharth Chatusthaya is crucial for comprehending the holistic approach to life advocated in Hindu thought.

Dharma (Righteousness)

Dharma represents the moral and ethical duties that individuals must follow in their lives. This principle emphasizes the importance of righteousness, justice, and fulfilling one’s responsibilities toward family, society, and the environment. In contemporary society, adhering to Dharma fosters a sense of social cohesion and responsibility, encouraging individuals to contribute positively to the community. It promotes values such as honesty, integrity, and compassion, which are essential for harmonious living.

Artha (Wealth)

Artha pertains to the pursuit of prosperity and economic well-being. In today’s world, financial stability is vital for personal and familial security. Artha encourages individuals to engage in productive activities that lead to wealth creation, enabling them to support themselves and contribute to the economy. However, it is essential to pursue Artha within the framework of Dharma to ensure that wealth is acquired ethically and responsibly, avoiding greed and exploitation.

Kama (Desire)

Kama encompasses the pursuit of pleasure, love, and emotional fulfillment. It acknowledges the importance of human emotions and desires in leading a fulfilling life. Recognizing and embracing one’s desires allows for a more holistic experience of life, including joy, creativity, and relationships. However, the pursuit of Kama should also align with Dharma, ensuring that one’s desires do not harm others or lead to moral degradation. In modern contexts, this aspect highlights the need for a balanced approach to life, where emotional well-being and personal happiness are prioritized.

Moksha (Liberation)

Moksha signifies the ultimate goal of spiritual liberation and self-realization. It represents the quest for understanding the true nature of the self and the universe, transcending material attachments and desires. The relevance of Moksha in contemporary society lies in its encouragement of spiritual growth, mindfulness, and self-reflection. It promotes a sense of inner peace and fulfillment that is independent of external circumstances, guiding individuals toward a deeper understanding of their purpose and existence.

Holistic Approach to Life

The framework of Purusharth Chatusthaya emphasizes that all four goals are interconnected and essential for a balanced life. Pursuing one goal without regard for the others can lead to an unfulfilled or misguided existence. For instance, an excessive focus on Artha may result in neglecting Dharma and Kama, leading to ethical compromises and personal dissatisfaction. Conversely, pursuing Moksha without the grounding of Dharma may lead to escapism or detachment from societal responsibilities.

Relevance in Modern Society

In today’s fast-paced and often materialistic world, the principles of Purusharth Chatusthaya offer a guide to achieving a balanced and meaningful life. They encourage individuals to strive for not just material success but also ethical living, emotional fulfillment, and spiritual growth. As modern society grapples with issues like stress, anxiety, and disconnection, the emphasis on holistic well-being provided by Purusharth Chatusthaya serves as a reminder of the importance of integrating various aspects of life for overall harmony.

On the basis of validity, marriage has been categorised as valid (Sahih), void (Batil), and irregular (Fasid). The Sunni sect recognizes all three types of marriage however the Shia sect only recognises valid and void marriages. There is no such thing as irregular marriage under Shia law. 

Sahih Nikah (Valid Marriage)

A marriage that has been solemnised by observing all the essential conditions of Muslim marriage and does not suffer from any infirmities is called a Sahih nikah. It is a completely valid marriage in the eyes of the law.

Essentials of a Valid Marriage

• Parties must be Muslim, of sound mind and reached the age of puberty. If the parties are minor, the marriage must be contracted by their guardians on their behalf.
• Parties must have consented to the marriage out of their free will.
• The offer(Ijab) and acceptance(Qubool) must have been made in the same sitting.
• The parties must not be within prohibited degrees of relationship.
• Two male witnesses or one male and two female witnesses must be present at the time of marriage, however, this is not necessary if the parties belong to the Shia sect.
• The amount of dower must be fixed. 

Legal effect of a valid marriage

A valid marriage has the following legal consequences:

• Consummation between husband and wife is legal.
• The children born out of a valid marriage are legitimate and entitled to inherit the property.
• Husband and wife can inherit each other’s property.
• The wife acquires the right of maintenance, dower, and residence.

Batil Nikah (void marriage)

A marriage that has been contracted in violation of essential conditions under Muslim law is a void or Batil marriage. Such a marriage has no legal effect and does not create any rights or obligations between the parties.

Essentials of void marriage

• Parties are not Muslim or of sound mind at the time of marriage.
• Either of the parties has not given his/her consent to the marriage out of their free will.
• The parties are within prohibited degrees of relationship which are absolute in nature like consanguinity or affinity or fosterage.
• The dower has not been fixed.
• The offer and acceptance of marriage has not been made in the same sitting or the acceptance has not been given unequivocably.

Legal effect of void marriage

A void marriage has the following legal consequences:

• Consummation between husband and wife is unlawful.
• Children of a void marriage are illegitimate and cannot inherit the property of their parents.
• The wife is not entitled to receive maintenance under a void marriage.
• The husband and wife are not entitled to inherit each other’s property, however she is entitled to dower if the marriage has been consummated.
• Parties can separate from each other at any time without divorce and can contract another marriage.

Fasid Nikah (irregular marriage)

If the marriage has been contracted in violation of certain relative prohibitions, then it is called irregular or Fasid marriage. Such marriages can become valid if the relative prohibitions cease to exist or are removed. A Fasid marriage is in contrast to void marriages where the prohibitions are permanent and cannot be removed at all. It is only recognised by the Sunni sect.

Essentials of irregular marriage

• Parties must be of sound mind and should have reached the age of puberty.
• Parties must have consented to the marriage out of their free will.
• The offer(Ijab) and acceptance(Qubool) must have been made in the same sitting.
• The amount of dower must be fixed.
• Parties must suffer from some relative impediments like-

1. If the wife is an idolatress or fire worshipper.
2. If the woman is undergoing Iddat.
3. If the husband already has four wives and he marries another woman.
4. If a Muslim man marries two women who are related to each other through consanguinity or affinity or fosterage.
5. If proper witnesses are not present at the time of marriage(applicable only to Sunnis).
6. If a Muslim woman has more than one husband.

Legal effects of irregular marriage

The effects of a Fasid marriage can be different depending upon whether the marriage has been consummated or not. If the marriage has not been consummated:

•  It has the same consequences as that of a void marriage. The spouses can separate without divorce or the intervention of the court. 
• The wife is not entitled to maintenance.
• The wife is not bound to observe iddat.

If the marriage is consummated:

• Children born out of such marriage are legitimate.
• Mutual rights of inheritance between husband and wife are not available, even if marriage is consummated.
• The wife is entitled to a specific or proper dower whichever is less.
• The wife has to observe iddat in case of the death of her husband or divorce.
• The wife is not entitled to maintenance during iddat.

Muta marriage

The word “Muta ” means enjoyment or use and a Muta marriage signifies a marriage that has been contracted temporarily for a specific duration by fixing the amount of dower. This type of marriage is recognised only under the Ithna Asharia school of the Shia sect and is void under Sunni law. The purpose of Muta marriage is to prevent the sin of Zina (adultery) and to give legitimacy to children born out of such marriages.

Essential conditions of Muta marriage

Competency

A male Shia is allowed to contract Muta marriage with a Muslim or Kitabia(Christian and Jew) or a fire worshipper. Muta marriage with a Hindu is void. A female Shia can enter into a Muta marriage with a Muslim only.

Fixed period

The term during which the Muta marriage is to last should be stipulated. The term could be for a week, a month, or a year. If the term is not fixed, then it will be treated as a permanent marriage.

Fixed dower 

The amount of dower to be paid is to be fixed at the time of marriage. If the dower is not fixed in a Muta marriage, the contract will be void.

Other formalities 

The essential conditions of marriage like consent of the parties, the option of puberty, age, and prohibited degrees must be kept in mind while contracting a Muta marriage. The presence of witnesses is not required.

Incidents of Muta marriage

• Children born out of such marriage are legitimate and have the right to inherit from both their parents. 
• The marriage is dissolved automatically on expiry of the stipulated period or by mutual consent or on the death of either party. Hence, a formal divorce is not required in a Muta marriage. If the wife leaves the husband before the term, he may deduct a portion of the dower.
• The wife is not entitled to maintenance under Muta marriage but she is entitled to claim maintenance under Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 (replaced by Section 144 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023)
• If the Muta marriage is consummated the wife is entitled to full dower but if it is not consummated, she will be entitled to only half dower.
• Muta marriage does not give rise to mutual rights of inheritance between the parties. However, if the agreement contains an express provision regarding mutual or unilateral right of inheritance, then such an agreement will be effective. 
• The wife under a Muta marriage has to observe Iddat:

1. Where there is no consummation, Iddat is not required to be observed.
2. In case of death of the husband, for a period of 4 months and 10 days.
3. In case of pregnancy, Iddat is to be observed till delivery.

Difference between Nikah and Muta marriage

• Muta marriage is a temporary marriage entered into for a fixed period and which comes to an end on the expiry of the term or by death or by mutual consent whereas Nikah is a permanent marriage which can be dissolved by death of the husband or by divorce.
• Muta marriage is recognized by the Shias only and not by the Sunnis whereas Nikah is recognised by both Shia and Sunni sects.
• Muta marriage does not confer any mutual rights of inheritance between the husband and wife whereas, under nikah, both husband and wife are entitled to inherit each other’s property.
• Divorce is not recognised under Muta marriage as it is temporary in nature and comes to an end after the expiry of the fixed term or if the husband decides to end the marriage, he can make a gift of the unexpired term known as a Hiba-i-Muddat, whereas, in Nikah, parties are allowed to put an end to marriage through the procedure of divorce.
• The wife is not entitled to receive maintenance under a Muta marriage whereas, under Nikah, she is entitled to it.

Meaning of Jajmani System

• Jajmani system is considered as the backbone of rural economy and social order.
• It is a system of traditional occupational obligations. In rural India Jajmani system is very much linked with caste system.
• It has become a part and parcel of social and economic system.
• Etymologically, the term Jajman has been derived from the Sanskrit word Yajman, which means a person who performs a yajna. Thus if some yajna is to be performed for that the services of some Brahmins are essentially needed. It was gradually that its use was made common to everyone who hired services or to whom the services were given.
• It could be said that the Jajmani system is a system of distribution whereby high caste land owning families are provided services and products of various lower castes such as Khati (Carpenter), Nai (Barber), Kumhars (Potters), Lobars (Blacksmiths), Dhobi (Washer man), Sweeper (Chuhra) etc.
• The servicing castes are called Kamins while the castes served are called Jajmans. For services rendered the servicing castes are paid in cash or in kind (grains, fodder, clothes, animal products like milk, butter etc.) Kamin means who works for some body or services him.
• In villages, durable relations obtain mainly between food-producing families and the families that supply them with goods and services. William H. Wiser’s study of a village in uttar Pradesh reveals that these relations are called Jajmani in Hindi. In Maharashtra, they are known as “Balutdarl”.
• In Jajmani system, at the centre is the family of agriculturists, the zamindars. They receive services from the families of occupational castes. One who receives services is known as Jajman, the patron. The families that provide services are known as Kamin, Kam Karney waley or Kamgars (workers). In other parts of India, terms such as Parjan, Pardhan, Balutedar etc. are also used for the providers of goods and services.
• All these words literally refer to the same people, i.e. those who ‘work’ for others and one may call them clients. The castes, which happen to provide services to the agriculturists, vary from one village to another. Every caste in the village does not happen to be a part of Jajmani system. So Jajmani system can be defined as a patron-client relationship.
• Yogendra Singh describes Jajmani system as a system governed by relationship based on reciprocity in inter-caste relations in villages. Ishwaran has said, that it is a system in which each caste has a role to play in a community life as a whole. This role consists of economic, social and moral functions.

Definition of Jajmani System

• The Jajmani system is a peculiarity of Indian villages.
• “A person by whom a Brahmin is hired to perform religious services, hence a patron, a client”. —Webster’s Dictionary
• “The service relations which are governed by a hereditary tenure are called Jajman-Praja relations”. —N.S. Reddy
• Kamins are also known as Praja.
• “Under this system each caste group within a village is expected to give certain standardised services to the families of other castes. Each one works for certain family or group of families with whom he is hereditary linked.” —Oscar Lewis
• Harold Gould has described the Jajmani system as inter-familial inter-caste relationship pertaining to the patterning of super- ordinate-subordinate relations between patrons and suppliers of services. The patrons are the families of clean castes while the suppers of services are the families of lower and unclean caste.
• The first detailed study of Jajmani tradition in India was made by William H. Wiser. Both Kamin and Jajman are Integral part of the jajmani system and thus complementary to each other. The Jajmani system is called “Aya” in Mysore of South India, according to Ishwaran (1966).
• Henty Orenstein has held that the families of village officials or village servants (for example the watchman) maintain jajmani relations with the whole village rather than with particular families.
• Edmund R. Leach (1960) said, “Jajmani system maintains and regulates the division of labour and economic interdependence of caste.” William H. Wiser (1967) said, “Jajmani system serves to maintain the Indian village as a self-sufficient community.” Harold Gould (1987) said, “Jajmani system distributes agricultural produce In exchange for menial and craft services.”
• A number of studies have been conducted on jajmani system in India. The important studies code N.S. Reddy’s study on North India in 1955, W.H. Wiser’s study in 1936, Prof. S.C. Dubey’s study in Hyderabad; D.N. Majumdar’s study (1958) in Lucknow of U.P., Katheline Cough’s (1955) study in Tanjore, Darling’s study (1934) In Punjab etc.
• Although the Jajmani relationship seems to be between castes, in reality, it is between particular families belonging to particular castes. It is the relationship between families that continue to exist over time.

Advantages of Jajmani System

Security of Occupation

Security of occupation is guaranteed in case of jajmani system. Since this system is hereditary, the kamin is assured of his occupation. He knows that if he breaks his family occupation he shall not be able to earn his livelihood.

Economic Security

It provides economic security to kamins as the jajman looks after all of their needs. The kamins are assured of their economic security. In every monetary crisis the jajman helps the kamins. They extend all possible help to the kamins. So there is economic security in the jajmani system.

Close and Intimate Relationship

There is close and intimate relationship between the jajman and kamin. This relationship is not purely economical but it is sentimental and internal. A spirit of fellow feeling and brotherhood develops under this system. Both jajman and kamin know full well each other’s limitations as well as plus points.

So, they try to adjust each other. Jajmani system is hereditary and permanent, that is why both jajman and kamin sympathies for each other. This system creates an atmosphere conducive to peaceful living and co-operation.

Peaceful Living

The cut-throat-competition for work or employment is almost absent in jajmani system. No jajman goes without service nor any kamin goes without food. So this system creates an atmosphere of peaceful living by creating the spirit of fellow-feeling and co-operation.

Disadvantages of Jajmani System

Source of Exploitation

Jajmani system is exploitative. The agricultural castes, which are invariably upper castes, seek the services of the occupational castes, which Eire generally lower castes. The exploitation of lower castes continues under the garb of paternal ties.

Like the caste system, this system has become a source of suppression, exploitation and discrimination. Oscar Lewis has pointed out in his study of Jajmani system in Rampur village, whereas in the past it was based on personal relationship, it has now become an instrument of exploitation of kamins by jajmans.

Feeling of Superiority and Inferiority

In this system, the kamins are considered low whereas the jajmems are placed high. This has resulted in social inequality and feeling of superiority and inferiority in the minds of both Jajman and kamin. Because this system is based on heredity, the kamin cannot take other Job or occupation and the advantage of latest scientific developments to improve his economic condition.

This system has resulted in lowering the economic standard of the kamins. They are treated as inferior. They are sometimes exploited and abused by the JaJmans. They become helpless before the money power of their Jajmans. This is a system which is based on the sense of high and low.

Impediment to Occupational and Social Mobility

Jajmani system has stood on the way of occupational mobility and resulted in lowering economic standard of the kamins. This system is hereditary, so there is no possibility of changing the occupation. In this way the system has checked social mobility. The conditions of the kamins remain miserable because of their economic weaknesses.

Supported by Caste System

Caste system is the basis of jajmani system. So this system suffers from all the evils of caste system. Dr. Majumdar found in his study that the conditions of kamins are miserable and the upper castes subject them to great harassment and trouble.

They are ill-treated by the Jajmans. This system leads to widespread discrimination. There is exploitation and coercion. Dumont has pointed out that this system has to satisfy all those who enter into jajmani relationships.

Effect of Transport and Communication

Due to rapid expansion of transport and communication, the system is in a decline. Because it has made easy for the kamins to seek job or other occupation outside their village. Now the kamins are no longer compelled to do the Job of Jajmans.

Impact of Social Reform Movement

Due to the impact of social reform movements, the suppressed castes get benefits. They try to rise up in the social ladder. Various religious reform movements, like Arya Samaj have produced one of the greatest setback to the Jajmani system.

Hindus has given complete effort or has completely endeavored to idealize the institution of marriage. Even in Rig Vedas it is mentioned that marriage of Hindus was considered as a sacramental union. Hindu marriage is considered to be a religious sacrament because marriage becomes valid only when rituals and ceremonies are performed.

The wife is also called as Ardhangini which is known as half of man. As per shastras man alone is only half until or unless he marries. Manussmriti mentions that once a man and woman gets united by marriage, there soul is considered to be one and there is no difference between them . Marriage is not only performed to get sexual pleasure but also to attain certain goals.

Husband and wife are also referred to by several names. Like husband is called as pati because he has a duty to protect his wife. He can be also called as bhartri as he have a duty to support his wife. On the other side the wife is called as jaya , because one own self is begotten on her. She can be also called as grihalakshmi and samrajayi.

Marriage is obligatory for the Hindus, so that they can get son to discharge their debt towards their ancestor by offering them Pindas and for performing religious and spiritual duties. So, wife is not merely grihapatni but also can be called as dharmapatni and sahadharmini.

Scheduled castes are those castes/races in the nation and one of the most oppressed sections of the society. They experience extreme social, educational, and economic backwardness as a result of the long-standing practice of untouchability, as well as some others due to a lack of infrastructure and geographic isolation, and who require special consideration for the protection of their interests and for their accelerated socioeconomic development. According to the terms of Clause 1 of Article 341 of the Constitution, these communities were declared Scheduled Castes and given notification.

Issues Faced by Scheduled Castes

Social issues

• Untouchables or Scheduled Castes have historically had a number of limitations or issues.
• These issues were related to the ideas of contamination and purity. In society, the untouchables were assigned a very low status.
• Hindus of high caste kept their distance from them on a social level. Numerous necessities of life were withheld from them, as opposed to high-caste Hindus. When it came to food and drink, they were reliant on Hindu custom.
• Untouchability is still a widespread practice in India even though the caste system has been formally abolished under the country’s current laws.
• The majority of villages in Rajasthan forbid members of the Scheduled Caste from entering the temple or using the public well.

Political Issues

• The untouchables were scarcely involved in political activities.
• They were not granted a voice in India’s politics, government, or general governance, and they were not permitted to occupy any public office. They were denied political representation and rights.
• They received the right to vote for the first time during the British era. Following independence, the Harijans/Tribes were also granted equal political opportunity and privileges.
• These Communities have not yet developed into a cohesive political force.

Economical issues

• They experienced several economic issues. They experienced a great deal of financial difficulty and were not adequately compensated for their service.
• Untouchables were historically denied access to their own lands. They were prohibited from operating any businesses.
• They were forbidden from working in any of the occupations that individuals from other castes were doing.
• The untouchables were required to perform heavy agricultural work, clean the streets, remove dead animals, and pursue any career in accordance with their abilities.
• Most of them were labourers who lacked land. They laboured in the fields owned by high caste Hindus.

Civic Disabilities

• Avoidance of using public spaces.
• For a very long time, the untouchable castes were not allowed to utilise any public spaces or amenities including village ponds, wells, temples, hotels, hostels, schools, hospitals, lecture halls, closets, etc.
• In the beginning, they were compelled to reside on the fringes of the cities and villages.
• They are still physically separated from other people. In South India, limitations were placed on the way people built their homes, the kinds of clothes they wore, and the decorative patterns they used.
• They were not allowed to cover the upper body with clothing made by tailors.

Educational Issues

• In the beginning, they were prohibited from enrolling in school. They were not allowed to study Sanskrit.
• Public schools and other educational facilities were shut down in their honour. The bulk of them are still illiterate and uneducated.
• They are required to clean the restrooms and frequently have to sit outside of the classroom at public schools where they are not permitted to serve meals to members of higher castes.
• Students frequently face discrimination, and this is true even at campuses when the majority of professor positions designated for them are empty.
• The recent suicides of Rohith Vemula and Payal Tadvi lend credence to the aforementioned allegations of discrimination against Dalit students.

Religious issues

• Even now, the SCs experience religious disadvantages. In many regions, they are not permitted to enter temples. The Brahmins who provide their priestly services to the lower castes are ill-equipped to preside over rituals for the castes considered to be “untouchable.”
• They don’t even submit to these castes’ obligations as “untouchables.” Due to taboos, the Harijans were unable to listen to or recite the Vedic mantras, which are said to be more pure.
• The Brahmins did not serve the untouchables, nor were they permitted access to the temples. They lacked standing to offer sacrifices to the Gods and Goddesses in the temple.
• Only the upanishad mantras, which are regarded as being less pure, were allowed to be used.
• Additionally, they were frequently refused access to burial grounds.

Crimes against Scheduled Castes

• According to data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), there were 223 crimes against Scheduled Castes in 2015, up from fewer than 50 (per million people) in the previous ten years.
• Rajasthan has the poorest track record among the states, despite Bihar consistently being in the top 5 states for crimes against Scheduled Castes.
• The idea that the economic growth of Dalits might lessen crimes against them has been contested by several social scientists.
• Due to factors including fear of retaliation, police notification, inability to pay bribes sought by police, etc., the majority of crimes against dalits go unreported.
• Compared to women from other castes, girls experience violence at a younger age and more frequently. The National Family Health Survey found that by the age of 15, 33.2% of scheduled caste women have been physically harmed. For women in the “other” group, the figure is 19.7%.
• The ongoing violence is primarily caused by the ruling castes’ perception of impunity.
• Hate crimes frequently target women and girls from Scheduled Castes. With a pitiful 16.8 percent conviction rate, access to justice has been appalling. The conviction rate for offences against Dalits is typically just half that of other offences.

National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SCs)

• The National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SCs) is a constitutional entity in the sense that it is explicitly created under Article 338 of the Constitution.
• The National Commission for SCs was established in 2004. It is made up of a chairperson, a vice-chairperson, and three additional members.
• They are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal. The President also determines their terms of service and terms of office.

Function of National Commission for Scheduled Castes (SCs)

• To examine and monitor all things relevant to the constitutional and other legal protections for the SCs, as well as to evaluate their effectiveness.
• To investigate particular complaints about the denial of rights and safeguards for the SCs.
• Participate in and advise on the planning process of the SCs’ socioeconomic growth, as well as assess the status of their development under the Union or a state.
• To offer suggestions on the steps that the Union or a state should take to ensure the effective implementation of those safeguards and other measures for the protection, welfare, and socioeconomic development of the SCs.
• To carry out any additional tasks as the president may define in respect to the protection, welfare, development, and progress of the SCs.

Kinship is one of the main organizing principles of society. It is one of the basic social institutions found in every society. This institution establishes relationships between individuals and groups. People in all societies are bound together by various kinds of bonds.

The most basic bonds are those based on marriage and reproduction. Kinship refers to these bonds, and all other relationships resulting from them. Thus, the institu­tion of kinship refers to a set of relationships and relatives formed thereof, based on blood relationships (consanguineal), or marriage (affinal).

There are different definitions of kinship. A few definitions are examined here.

‘The social relationships deriving from blood ties (real and supposed) and marriage are collectively referred to as kinship.’

– Abercrombie et al

‘Kinship is the socially recognized relationships between people in a culture, who are either held to be biologically related or given the status of relatives by marriage, adoption, or other rituals. Kinship is a broad-ranging term for all the relationships that people are born into or create later in life that are considered binding in the eyes of their society. Although customs vary as to which bonds are accorded more weight, their very acknowledgement defines individuals and roles that society expects them to play.’

– Encyclopedia Britannica

‘Kinship is the recognition of relationships between persons based on descent or marriage. If the relationship between one person and another is considered by them to involve descent, the two are consanguine (“blood”) relatives. If the relationship has been established through marriage, it is affinal.’

– L. Stone

‘Kinship is a system of social relationships that is expressed in biological idiom using terms like “mother”, “son”, and so on. It is best visualized as a mass of networks of related- ness, not two of which are identical, that radiate from each individual. Kinship is the basic organizing principle in small-scale societies like those of the Aborigines and pro­vides a model for interpersonal behaviour.’

– R. Tonkinson

‘Kinship encompasses the norms, roles, institutions and cognitive processes refer­ring to all the social relationships that people are born into, or create later in life, and that are expressed through, but not limited to a biological idiom.’

– Laurent Dousset

The rising trend of communalism and the accompanying violence have created a feeling of insecurity among the religious minorities. Muslims, Sikhs and Christians in particular, fear discrimination and confrontation in the days to come. This may just be a fear, but the nation cannot afford to let about one-fifth of the country’s population to fall victim to panic, suspicion and insecurity. The events between 1984 and 1999 in Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Assam, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Delhi give ample evidence and taste of the destructive outcome of the communal virus in its varied forms.

Religious minorities in India are pro­tected by the Constitution which provides for justice, tolerance, equality and freedom. But in an age in which religious fundamentalism is getting transferred into religious bigotry, intolerance and narrow-mindedness, the notion of ‘Ram Rajya’, is not infrequently misinterpreted by the mi­norities, especially Muslims, to mean the rule of Lord Ram, i.e., Hindu rule. The presence of police in and near religious shrines to keep an eye on and check the hide-outs of terrorists (as in Amritsar in 1985 and in Kashmir in November 1993 and May 1995) is viewed as interference in re­ligious faith.

Therefore, to prevent damage to the peace and integrity of the nation, there is need to analyse and debate the problem of communal­ism and communal violence. It has become absolutely important to define ‘communalism’. Also, it is equally pertinent to discover who is ‘commu­nal’.

Communalism is an ideology which states that society is divided into re­ligious communities whose interests differ and are at times even opposed to each other. The antagonism practised by the people of one community against the people of other community and religion can be termed ‘communalism’. This antagonism goes to the extent of falsely accusing, harm­ing, and deliberately insulting a particular community and extends to looting, burning down the homes and shops of the helpless and the weak, dishonouring women, and even killing persons. ‘Communal persons’ are those who practise politics through religion.

Among leaders, those relig­ious leaders are ‘communal’ who run their religious communities like business enterprises and institutions and raise the cries of “Hinduism, Is­lam, Sikhism or Christianity in danger”, the moment they find that donations into their holy ‘corporations’ have begun to dwindle, or their leadership has come to be challenged, or their ideology has been ques­tioned.

Thus, ‘communal’ is not one who is ‘a man of religion’ but ‘one who practices politics by linking it with religion’. These power politicians are not good Hindus nor Good Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Parsis or Bud­dhists. They can be viewed as dangerous political ‘scum’. For them, God and religion are merely instruments to be used to live luxuriously as the ‘king parasites’ of society and to attain political goals.

T.K. Oommen (1989) has suggested six dimensions of communalism assimilationist, welfarist, retreatist, retaliatory, separatist, and secessionist. Assimilationist communalism is one in which small religious groups are assimilated/integrated into a big religious group. Such communalism claims that Scheduled Tribes are Hindus, or that Jains, Sikhs and Bud­dhists are Hindus and they should be covered by the Hindu Marriage Act.

Welfarist communalism aims at the welfare of a particular community, say, improving living standard and providing for education and health of Christians by the Christian associations, or Parsi associations working for the uplift of the Parsis. Such communal mobilisation aims at working only for members of one’s own community. Retreatist communalism is one in which a small religious community keeps itself away from politics: for example, Bahai community, which forbids its members from partici­pating in political activities.

Retaliatory communalism attempts to harm, hurt, and injure the members of other religious communities. Separatist com­munalism is one in which one religious or a cultural group wants to maintain its cultural specificity and demands a separate territorial state within the country, for example, the demand of Mizos and Nagas in North-East India or Bodos in Assam, or of Jharkhand tribals in Bihar, or of Gorkhas for Gorakhaland in West Bengal, or of hill people for Uttrakhand in Uttar Pradesh, or of Vidharbha in Maharashtra.

Lastly, secessionist communalism is one in which a religious community wants a separate political identity and demands an independent state. A very small militant section of Sikh population demanding Khalistan or some Muslim militants demanding independent Kashmir were engaged in practising this type of communalism. Of these six types of communalism, the last three create problems engendering agitations, communal riots, terrorism and insurgency.

An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people who identify with each other on the basis of perceived shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include a people of a common language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, religion, history, or social treatment. The term ethnicity is sometimes used interchangeably with the term nation, particularly in cases of ethnic nationalism.

Ethnicity may be construed as an inherited or societally imposed construct. Ethnic membership tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language, dialect, religion, mythology, folklore, ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art, or physical appearance. Ethnic groups may share a narrow or broad spectrum of genetic ancestry, depending on group identification, with some groups having mixed genetic ancestry.

By way of assimilation, acculturation, amalgamation, language shift, intermarriage, adoption, and religious conversion, individuals or groups may over time shift from one ethnic group to another. Ethnic groups may be divided into subgroups or tribes, which over time may become separate ethnic groups themselves due to endogamy or physical isolation from the parent group. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a panethnicity and may eventually merge into one single ethnicity. Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis.

Although both organic and performative criteria characterise ethnic groups, debate in the past has dichotomised between primordialism and constructivism. Earlier 20th-century “Primordialists” viewed ethnic groups as real phenomena whose distinct characteristics have endured since the distant past. Perspectives that developed after the 1960s increasingly viewed ethnic groups as social constructs, with identity assigned by societal rules.

Varna

1. Literally ‘Varna’ means colour and originates from the world ‘Vri’ meaning the choice of one’s occupation. Hence Varna is concerned with one’s colour or occupation.
2. Varna’s are only four in number i.e. Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra.
3. It is an all-India phenomenon.
4. The hierarchical pattern of Varna shows the concept of purity and pollution as the basis of division of society and placements of groups into higher and lower classes i.e. Varna-class correlation is mostly positive.
5. As regards the mobility pattern Varna’s are relatively flexible, compared with the castes. With the acquisition of talents and virtues, an individual may improve upon his previous status and vice-versa.
6. Varna may be described as an abstract classification of people of a mythical origin. The religious explanation of the Varna system is derived from the Purushashukta and the Rig-Vedic hymn which describes the creation of priests (Brahmins) warriors (Kshatriyas) traders (Vaisyas) and menials (Sudras) from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Creator respectively.
7. Varna system is free from socio-economic and political disabilities as well as restrictions.

Caste

1. Caste or ‘Jati’ originates from the root word ‘Jana’ which implies taking birth. Thus, caste is concerned with birth.
2. Castes are very large in number. Castes also have many subdivisions known as sub-castes.
3. There are regional variations mostly based on linguistic differences.
4. Caste-class correlation is not always positive, There may be variations in the placement due to economic, political arid educational status of various groups.
5. Caste system is based on rigid principles and mobility in the ladder is checked. It is based on a closed type of stratification.
6. Caste, by contrast, is a concrete grouping based on ritualistic and occupational criteria.
7. The caste system imposes many restrictions on the members.

Introduction

There are no limitations to human desires. People are full of greed, lust, and anger. To overcome all the dark side of our lives there is the existence of an Ashram system. The existence of Ashram system can be found in India since ages. The system of ashram and its theory was suggested by ancient sages. They believed that system of ashram makes a man satisfied with a healthy and prosperous life. Moreover, one can get spiritual knowledge, education, and find the morals of life by following the system of Ashrams.

The System of Ashrams

The system of ashrams work follows four principles such as Dharma, Artha, Kama and lastly Moksha. The whole life of a human being is driven through these four principles only. The words Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha signify the meaning of virtue, wealth, willingness, and freedom. The sequence is very important to achieve the goal of life. At first, there is Dharma which satisfies the term well established. This principle of life works differently in different situations of life. It is the ultimate resource of human values.

Then the second principle is Artha signifies achievements that are wealthy. The achievements can be of different types such as learning the virtue of life, skills, and habits. As a result, achieving artha requires an intermediate level of motivation. It refers to the culturally conditioned ideas that shape individual desire. The depth and stability of such cultural ideas are relative. They have larger and more enduring than personal aspirations because they are shared by many people within the community that exists even as individuals come and go. As a result, achieving Artha requires an intermediate level of motivation. It refers to the culturally conditioned ideas that shape individual desire. The depth and stability of such cultural ideals are relative. They are larger and more durable than personal aspirations because they are shared by many people within the community that endures even as individuals come and go. The third principle is the Kama which signifies the willingness of humans for any object. These desires vary from person to person. It can be decreased or controlled by time or by experience. The principle of Kama is the best example to motivate a person.

The last and final goal of the Ashram system is to take a man to the Moksha. It implies the freedom of human beings. There is no existence of desires. People are free from the factors that hamper our mental and physical health. There is only the existence of knowledge and spirituality. However, all the Ashrams work upon spiritual theory.

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Importance of an Ashram in Ancient Indian Society

An Ashram is the step of life where people take a break and prepare themselves to step into a new stage of life. It has played a great role in managing the lives of ancient people. In ancient history, four stages of life are classified based on the theory of Ashrams. Each of the Ashrams signifies the different goals of life to be achieved by a person. People used to follow the steps throughout their entire lives. The sections of the Ashram and their importance is described below −

• Significance of Brahmacharya − The initial stage of life is known as Brahmacharya. A child enters the cycle of Ashrams of life stages by the ceremony of upanayana where they are considered the reborn child. A boy of eight years old is chosen for the ceremony. Kshatriya boys of ten years and Vaishya boys of twelve years are allowed for the ceremony. There is no place for the Sudra boys to take part in the process as they were not permitted to take education. In this stage, children are taught about disciplines, cultures of India and the Vedas. Personality development is the agenda of this Ashram.

• Significance of Grihastha −This is the second stage of life where a boy enters youth life from his childhood life. He entered into married life. However, they have to provide services to people, requiring themselves along with the birds and animals.

• Significance of Vanaprashta − The next stage of life is known as Vanaprashta which begins at the age of fifty. At this time he has to leave his family as well as the village. He has to go to the forest alone and practice meditation. This is the way of making the soul pure. The control of the senses is the main focus of the vanaprastha. Sometimes the wife of the man is permitted to live with him for the sake of performing social activities.

• Significance of Sannyasa − The final stage of life entered after the vanaprastha took place at the age of 75 years. In this stage, a person forgets about all the bindings with the world and serves to the God.

Education in Ashrams

Previously it had been discussed that an Ashram is the best place for gaining knowledge. From the stage of Brahmacharya, a child studies the Vedas and spirituality. After that, he learns how to eliminate desires from life. In the case of Grihastha life, he learns to take responsibility and duties of his family as well as to serve the whole world. In the Vanaprastha stage, a person not only serves the world but also he spreads knowledge and experience to the young generations. In the Sannyasi stage, he learns to sacrifice his life to God and starts working in the service of God. Moreover, he learns to forget about the attachment to the family as well as the universe.

Conclusion

The life of human beings is linked up with Ashrams. India is the harbour of spiritual activities. It is the root of Indian culture and history. The Ashram has a great role in developing a person mentally and physically. But nowadays the agenda of Ashrams have tangled with the lifestyle of the young generations. There is no essence of Vedic knowledge remaining in society. People forget to do their duties and responsibilities towards the society as well as the nation. A man enjoys the Grihastha stage from marriage to the end of his life which results in conflicts and troubles in their family. A person without the knowledge of life stages, cannot survive in society or cannot be happy inside. So, there is a requirement of spreading the knowledge of Ashrams rapidly among the current generations.

Kinship is a social and cultural construct. It defines and organizes relationships within a family unit. The meaning of kinship extends beyond biological relationships. It encompasses the ties of blood, marriage, and adoption. It is a complex system of social relationships. It links individuals through various biological and social connections. It defines familial roles, responsibilities, and expectations within a society. It establishes a network of obligations, roles, and responsibilities.

Different Types of Kinship

Here are the different types of Kinship:

Consanguineal Kinship

This type of kinship is based on blood relations. It includes relationships between parents and children, siblings, and other direct blood relatives. Consanguineal kinship is considered the most basic and universal form of kinship.

Affinal Kinship

Affinal kinship is based on marriage. It includes relationships between spouses, such as husband and wife. Marriage creates kinship ties between individuals and their in-laws.

Social Kinship

Social kinship refers to kinship ties that are not based on blood or marriage. They are formed through social connections. These connections can be religious, community-based, or affiliations with social groups or organizations. Social kinship highlights the importance of social bonds beyond familial or marital relationships.

Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining its sovereignty (self-governance) over its perceived homeland to create a nation-state. It holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power. It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity, based on a combination of shared social characteristics such as culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, politics (or the government), religion, traditions and belief in a shared singular history, and to promote national unity or solidarity. There are various definitions of a “nation”, which leads to different types of nationalism. The two main divergent forms are ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism.

Beginning in the late 18th century, particularly with the French Revolution and the spread of the principle of popular sovereignty or self determination, the idea that “the people” should rule is developed by political theorists. Three main theories have been used to explain the emergence of nationalism:

1. Primordialism developed alongside nationalism during the Romantic era and held that there have always been nations. This view has since been rejected by most scholars, who view nations as socially constructed and historically contingent. Perennialism, a softer version of primordialism which accepts that nations are modern phenomena but with long historical roots, is subject to academic debate.
2. Modernization theory, currently the most commonly accepted theory of nationalism, adopts a constructivist approach and proposes that nationalism emerged due to processes of modernization, such as industrialization, urbanization, and mass education, which made national consciousness possible. Proponents of this theory describe nations as “imagined communities” and nationalism as an “invented tradition” in which shared sentiment provides a form of collective identity and binds individuals together in political solidarity.
3. Ethnosymbolism explains nationalism as a product of symbols, myths, and traditions, and is associated with the work of Anthony D. Smith.

The moral value of nationalism, the relationship between nationalism and patriotism, and the compatibility of nationalism and cosmopolitanism are all subjects of philosophical debate. Nationalism can be combined with diverse political goals and ideologies such as conservatism (national conservatism and right-wing populism) or socialism (left-wing nationalism). In practice, nationalism is seen as positive or negative depending on its ideology and outcomes. Nationalism has been a feature of movements for freedom and justice, has been associated with cultural revivals, and encourages pride in national achievements. It has also been used to legitimize racial, ethnic, and religious divisions, suppress or attack minorities, undermine human rights and democratic traditions, and start wars, being frequently cited as a cause of both World Wars.

A pluralistic society is one where diverse groups—such as different ethnic, religious, and cultural communities—coexist and maintain their unique identities while actively participating in a shared social, economic, and political environment. Such societies emphasize tolerance, respect, and equal participation, allowing individuals and groups to thrive without sacrificing their cultural heritage.

A pluralistic society is a social structure characterized by the peaceful coexistence of various groups, each with its distinct cultural, religious, ethnic, or linguistic identities. In a pluralistic society, diversity is valued and encouraged as a foundation of social harmony and strength, rather than a divisive force. Equal respect and rights are granted to all members, ensuring that different groups can participate fully in civic life without facing discrimination or pressure to assimilate.

Mutual respect and tolerance are central to a pluralistic society. These values create an environment where individuals and groups can freely express their unique traditions and perspectives without fear of prejudice. Such respect allows for intercultural dialogue, where open communication and understanding help bridge cultural divides, reducing potential conflicts and fostering unity.

In terms of governance, pluralistic societies often have a shared political and legal framework that guarantees equal rights and protection for all groups. This shared structure enables each community to maintain its unique identity while contributing to the collective welfare of society. In countries like Canada, India, and the United States, pluralism is a guiding principle, with policies in place to protect and celebrate diversity while encouraging integration rather than assimilation.

A pluralistic society thus promotes a dynamic and inclusive social environment. By embracing diversity, these societies strengthen social bonds, enhance cultural richness, and prepare individuals to function in a globalized world. Pluralism encourages citizens to view diversity as a strength, creating a more inclusive, cohesive, and resilient society.

Backward Classes refer to social groups that have historically faced social, educational, and economic disadvantages due to factors like caste-based discrimination, poverty, and lack of access to opportunities. This term is commonly used in countries like India to describe communities that need government support to achieve social and economic progress.

Key Characteristics of Backward Classes

1. Historical Disadvantage: These groups have often faced centuries of discrimination and exclusion based on caste, region, or ethnicity, resulting in limited opportunities for advancement.

2. Social and Educational Barriers: Many backward classes experience challenges accessing education, healthcare, and employment, which further hinders social mobility.

3. Legal Recognition: In countries like India, backward classes are officially recognized by the government and are often divided into categories like Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and Scheduled Castes (SCs). Legal recognition enables targeted support through reservations in education and employment, as well as welfare schemes.

4. Affirmative Action Policies: To bridge the inequality gap, governments implement affirmative action policies such as reservation quotas in government jobs, educational institutions, and sometimes in political representation.

5. Focus on Social Upliftment: Various social welfare programs and scholarships are designed to help backward classes improve their social and economic status, aiming for inclusive growth and equality in society.

National Integration in India is very important to enhance unity among all sections of society in a country like India, which is replete with diversity in many spheres of life. This article helps one understand the role of the education system, cinema, people from middle class background, working class, intellectuals, different multinational companies and media in promoting National Integration.

Role of Education in National Integration?

Education plays a key role as it changes our thoughts and ideas. Fortunately, in India, we have had very good educationists both before and after independence. School teachers play a great role in shaping the minds of young students in the country. Various characters in history such as Rani Laxmi Bai, Lal Bahadur Shastri, and famous slogans such as ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ have permeated into our collective consciousness over many years. The syllabus designed by NCERT with the help of eminent scholars has also contributed greatly in shaping the idea of India. Also, often students migrate to different parts within the country to pursue higher education at different universities. This has helped young minds to think beyond their regions, caste, and religion, Universities around the country, such as Delhi University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Osmania University, to name a few, have students enrolled from around the country, who within a short span, develop a pan-Indian sense that rises above any cultural or ethnic differences. Unfortunately, our student enrollments in higher education institutions is still very low, and only around 12-13% of our population have access to higher education, whereas in the USA, it is approximately 87%, and in Europe, it is more than 50%, even in China, it is approximately around 25%. Thus, one remains hopeful that in the near future, with the coming up of private universities, and efforts taken by the Government, higher education not only becomes more easily accessible but student enrollments in these institutions also go up. People from diverse cultural groups, and marginalized sections such as minorities, women, tribal groups, etc. who have been alienated in the past from the national mainstream, have gradually been aligning themselves with the mainstream, largely due to the efforts of an inclusive education system. In the words of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, “Right education open to all is perhaps the basic remedy for most of our ills”.

Role of Cinema, Sports, and Literature

Hindi and regional cinemas of the 1960s and 70s helped promote the idea of Indian nationalism, and the idea of secularism. Scriptwriters and directors were conscious towards promoting the idea of nationalism.  Movies which showcased love transcended cultural, regional, linguistic barriers, and caste barriers helped in shaping the idea of India. Movies also helped shape a secular India as characters enacted included a broad spectrum of religions, regional backgrounds, ethnicity, etc. It must also be remembered that just after independence, with scant entertainment options around, cinema was a very important source of entertainment for a large section of society. Thus, cinema which imbued the spirit of brotherhood, promoted unity, and the idea of secularism, helped shape the idea of India. The field of sports unfortunately in India has been a neglected area through much of our post-independent history, and stellar performances of our athletes in games such as the Olympics, Asian Games, and Commonwealth Games, has been largely due to their own individual brilliance. India has traditionally done well in hockey, but after the Olympics in Moscow, 1980, performance in hockey has been on a steady decline. Cricket, on the other hand has been able to take centre-stage of the national discourse on sports, and has undoubtedly united Indians. People from all sections of society stand united in support for the Indian cricket team in all competitions and versions of the game, be it traditional test cricket, One-day Internationals, or Twenty20. Literature has also played a leading role in promoting National Integration. One observes that in the field of literature, both English literature and regional literature reflected in the form of poems, short stories, etc. helped promote the national identity and lessen areas of conflicts arising due to differences in caste, region, etc. Patriotic literature by Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Prem Chand, Bharatendu Harish Chandra, and many others during the freedom struggle helped deepen and spread Indian Nationalism. Their renditions are still alive in the hearts and minds of people, and reinvigorate the feeling of unity in diversity among the people of India, even in the present day.

Contribution of Middle Class, Intellectuals, and Working Class

It is important to note that none of these classes can afford to confine themselves to a particular region. The middle class for example, is a very mobile community, and often migrate between states frequently, either for business, education, or career prospects. Cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Pune, Calcutta, etc. have people settled from diverse cultural and regional backgrounds and have made these cities their homes. This section of the middle class, can easily identify themselves with the idea of India. In Mumbai alone, one witnesses people from every region of India, many of whom have migrated there in search of opportunities. Although people migrating from smaller cities to larger ones face various issues, among them being they labeled as ‘outsiders’. However, their will to continue staying and fighting the odds, reflect their confidence in the concept of India. The same holds true for the working class as well. Similarly, the intellectuals, by their very nature of being liberals do not confine themselves within the limits of caste, class, religion and place. They are against the idea of conflicting values and rather work for the collective upliftment of mankind and humanity. Since the evolution of awareness of rights and oneness, we can trace multiple examples when the entire intellectual community has come forward for arbitrary actions of the state against the creative expression of individuals irrespective of caste, creed, religion and place. This allows the space for distinct expressions within a unified India.

Role of the Press/Media/Multinational Companies, etc.

Even before Independence, the press has been an active instrument in the formation of the idea of a unified India. Since independence, due to the tools offered by the Constitution such as freedom of speech and expression, the press and media have gained a substantial amount of autonomy and have been strengthened as an institution. They have made an enormous contribution in building and sustaining the integration of India as one unit in forms that are continuously evolving from printing press to radio to television to social media which caters to the aspirations and views of each generation. Other factors that have been as important as the ones above are the establishments of important institutions such as the State Bank of India, Postal services, Doordarshan, All India Radio, etc. which were important tools of furthering inclusiveness but have subconsciously also promoted and strengthened the idea of a unified India in the minds of our citizens. Hence, although the importance and significance of a region, religion, caste, etc. in the minds of people belonging to each of them cannot be undermined in India due to their historical footprint, however, at all given times, it is the national interest, which must supersede any prejudices towards the above.

While Islamic teachings advocate equality among all believers, emphasizing that social hierarchy should not be based on lineage, the influence of caste-like structures has persisted in many Muslim societies, especially in South Asia. These structures, often influenced by pre-existing local customs and cultural norms, result in social stratification based on occupation, ancestry, and perceived purity.

In South Asia, where a large population of Muslims lives, the influence of the traditional caste system has impacted the social organization of Muslim communities. Here, Muslims are often divided into various endogamous groups (groups that marry within the same social category), which bear resemblance to the Hindu caste system. Some of the main group divisions are Ashraf, Ajlaf, and Arzal:

1. Ashraf: The Ashraf category includes those who claim descent from the Prophet Muhammad, Arab ancestry, or Persian and Afghan lineages. Ashraf Muslims typically consider themselves of noble lineage and often hold higher social prestige. Traditionally, they are associated with the upper echelons of society, often engaging in religious leadership, administration, and scholarship.

2. Ajlaf: The Ajlaf category consists of Muslims with local origins, often converted from lower castes or indigenous communities. They are typically associated with artisan trades, agriculture, and various other labor-intensive occupations. Although Ajlaf Muslims are socially below the Ashraf, they make up a significant portion of the Muslim community.

3. Arzal: The Arzal category, often referred to as Dalit Muslims, includes those considered socially marginalized within the Muslim community, often performing what are traditionally considered “unclean” or stigmatized occupations, like leatherwork or sanitation. They face significant discrimination and exclusion even within the broader Muslim society.

Social Practices and Caste-Like Behavior

Although Islam promotes equality and discourages discrimination based on birth or lineage, these hierarchical divisions often lead to social separation. Endogamy (marrying within one’s group) is common, and occupational roles often pass down through generations within these communities, reinforcing divisions. For example, marriages between Ashraf and Ajlaf or Arzal groups are still relatively rare, with families often preferring to marry within their own social strata to preserve status and cultural identity.

Impact of Caste System on Muslim Society

1. Economic and Educational Disparities: These divisions contribute to economic and educational disparities within Muslim communities. Ashraf Muslims, due to their historically advantageous positions, tend to have better access to resources, education, and opportunities than Ajlaf and Arzal Muslims, who often face limited upward mobility.

2. Social Discrimination: Ajlaf and Arzal Muslims frequently encounter social discrimination and prejudice within the larger Muslim community. They may face challenges in gaining equal status and opportunities, which can affect their social and economic advancement.

3. Government Policies and Affirmative Action: Recognizing these disparities, some governments, especially in India, have implemented affirmative action policies to address the socio-economic disadvantages faced by certain groups among Muslims. For instance, Arzal and some Ajlaf groups are recognized as Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India, making them eligible for reservations in education and employment to help uplift their status.

Samskara are sacraments in Hinduism and other Indian religions, described in ancient Sanskrit texts, as well as a concept in the karma theory of Indian philosophies. The word literally means “putting together, making perfect, getting ready, to prepare”, or “a sacred or sanctifying ceremony” in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts of India.

In the context of karma theory, samskaras are dispositions, characters or behavioural traits that exist as default from birth or prepared and perfected by a person over one’s lifetime, that exist as imprints on the subconscious according to various schools of Hindu philosophy such as the Yoga school. These perfected or default imprints of karma within a person, influences that person’s nature, response and states of mind.

In another context, Samskara refers to the diverse sacraments in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. In Hinduism, the samskaras vary in number and details according to regional traditions. They range from the list of 40 samskaras in the Gautama Dharmasutra from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, to 16 samskaras in the Grhyasutra texts from centuries later.^[1][9] The list of samskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby’s birth and a baby’s name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.

Sanskritisation (or Sanskritization) is a term in sociology which refers to the process by which castes or tribes placed lower in the caste hierarchy seek upward mobility by emulating the rituals and practices of the dominant castes or upper castes. It is a process similar to “passing” in sociological terms. This term was made popular by Indian sociologist M. N. Srinivas in the 1950s. Sanskritisation has in particular been observed among mid-ranked members of caste-based social hierarchies.

In a broader sense, also called Brahmanisation, it is a historical process in which local Indian religious traditions become syncretised, or aligned to and absorbed within the Brahmanical religion, resulting in the pan-Indian religion of Hinduism.

a low or middle Hindu caste, or tribal or other group, changes its customs, ritual, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently twice-born caste. Generally such changes are followed by a claim to a higher position in the caste hierarchy than that traditionally conceded to the claimant class by the local community…”

In a broader sense, Sanskritisation is

the process whereby local or regional forms of culture and religion – local deities, rituals, literary genres – become identified with the great tradition of Sanskrit literature and culture: namely the culture and religion of orthodox, Aryan, Brahmans, which accepts the Veda as revelation and, generally, adheres to varrṇāśrama-dharma.

In this process, local traditions (little traditions) become integrated into the great tradition of Brahmanical religion, disseminating Sanskrit texts and Brahmanical ideas throughout India, and abroad. This facilitated the development of the Hindu synthesis, in which the Brahmanical tradition absorbed local popular traditions of ritual and ideology.

According to Srinivas, Sanskritisation is not just the adoption of new customs and habits, but also includes exposure to new ideas and values appearing in Sanskrit literature. He says the words Karma, dharma, papa, maya, samsara, and moksha are the most common Sanskrit theological ideas which become common in the talk of people who are sanskritised.

Each and every society has its own way of stratification. An un-stratified society with a real form of equality is impossible. If we look back to the history there is no evidence of such society. Indian society is stratified basing upon the caste system. The caste division is rooted in the Varna system of traditional Hindu society.

It was divided into four strata Brahmin, Kshyatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. Gradually Varna System was diverted to caste system, as Varna system was divided and sub-divided into castes and sub-castes. Caste system is very complex and complicated because of which it is very difficult to define.

According to Sir Herbert Risely, “Caste is a collection of families, bearing a common name, claiming a common descent, from a mythical ancestor, human and divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”

To define caste Ketkar says that it is a group having two characteristics:

(a) Membership is confined to those who are born of members and includes all persons so born.

(b) The members are forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group.

Maclver and Page defined caste “When status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste.”

For D.N. Majumdar and T.N. Madan, ‘caste is a closed group’.

Functions of Caste System

All the functions of caste system can be categorized under two:

(a) From Individual Point of View

(b) From Social Point of View

From the individual’s point of view caste provides opportunities to the individual to develop in the society.

1. Caste Provides Social Recognition:

All the caste categories are based on the principle of purity and pollution. The pure castes get high social status without any achievement. By ascription, a Brahmin gets high status.

2. Provides Social Security:

If any individual faces the problem of getting security from the family, caste protects the person. For example, if a child becomes orphan and nobody is there to look after the child, then the caste/sub-caste takes the responsibility of child.

3. It Solves Economic Problem:

As each and every caste is attached with an occupation, and as it is hereditary in nature, one can follow his traditional occupation. Through his specialized occupation one can solve his economic problem.

4. It helps in Socialization:

Each caste has its own rules and regulations to control the behaviour of its members. Through these, caste can guide the individual behaviour. A caste introduces its members in the wider social circle. The pattern of taking food, wearing dress, keeping relations with other castes etc. give the individual an identity in the society.

5. Protects Individual from the Exploitation:

Caste acts as a trade union. It protects its members from the exploitation. In jajmani system, the higher caste people cannot exploit the kameens (the service giving castes) as these caste groups have their caste panchayats. Caste panchayat looks after the social and economic security of the individual.

From the point of view of society:

1. Integrity of the Society:

Caste helps in the integrity of the society. It has the capacity to accommodate individuals/groups from different races, religions, regions and forms a social whole. So, caste system acts as a mechanism to maintain social integrity.

2. Preservation of the Culture:

Each society has its own way of acquiring knowledge, expression of behaviour, habits, style of life etc. These cultural elements pass from one generation to another. Caste helps in passing those cultural elements through the socialization process.

3. System of Division of Labour:

Caste is based on the unique system of division of labour. All the activities necessary for the society have been divided into various categories and allotted to different caste groups. The main objective of this sort of division of labour is smooth functioning of the society.

4. Promotes Political Stability:

In the caste system the political power is given to one category, i.e. Kshatriyas. No other caste is allowed to compete with Kshatriyas to have political power. So it avoids political competition, conflict and violence. It creates a situation of political stability in the society.

5. Maintains Racial Purity:

Caste system follows the strict rule of caste/sub-caste endogamy. Endogamy (marriage within one’s own caste/sub-caste) helps in maintaining and preserving the purity of blood.

6. Promotes Economic Development:

In caste system each caste is allotted a specific occupation. When a caste continues a profession generation after generation it is obvious that it can produce qualitative things. Because of this reason many handicraft items of India gained international recognition. It helps in the economic betterment of the individual and also economic- development of the society.

Dysfunctions of Caste System

Caste system has also many demerits. Hindu society is facing various problems due to caste system.

1. Creates Social Obstacles:

Caste system divides society into- many groups. Each group is attached to rigid social norms and values, because of which normal interaction among the categories is not possible. So, it is a hindrance to social progress.

2. Slow Social Change:

All the caste groups have to follow certain fixed and rigid rules and regulations. The basis of these rules and regulation is the principle of ‘Purity and Pollution’. One has to conform the traditional norms and values to maintain the principle. So, the change occurs in the society is very slow.

3. Hinders Economic Progress:

Three things are responsible for creating economic hindrance in connection to caste system.

Firstly, caste system is based on the unequal distribution of wealth.

Secondly, low caste people are allotted occupations which give them low income.

Thirdly, it denies social and occupational mobility.

4. Creates Social Dis-organisation:

When caste was originated the main objective was to unify the society. But now Hindu society is divided into so many castes and sub-castes. Caste conflict, caste tension and caste rivalry are very common in the society. So, it is not serving its purpose rather it is dividing the society and creating the situation of social dis-organisation.

5. Political Conflict:

Caste system also breeds political conflict. Involvement of caste in democratic system creates conflicting situation in the political field. Political parties are using caste as their means to get vote.

6. Low Status of Women:

Caste system is related with child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, sati system etc. Caste system gives low status to women by denying education and also they were denied to perform priestly functions.

7. Untouchability:

Only caste system is responsible for the suffering of a particular section of the society who are untouchables. They are suppressed and exploited by the high caste groups.

Irawati Karve (1905-1970) was a pioneering Indian anthropologist and sociologist renowned for her contributions to understanding Indian society, culture, and kinship systems. Born in Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh, Karve was raised in Maharashtra, and her early environment deeply influenced her intellectual journey. She became one of India’s first female anthropologists and is best known for her analytical works on caste, kinship, and cultural diversity in India. Through her multidisciplinary approach, Karve was instrumental in advancing social sciences in India, providing a unique perspective on Indian social structures, which remain relevant today.

Academic Background and Career

Karve pursued her studies in anthropology during an era when few Indian women were active in academia. She studied anthropology at the University of Berlin and earned her doctorate in 1930. Upon returning to India, she joined Deccan College in Pune, where she eventually became the Head of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology. Her work as a professor and researcher at Deccan College allowed her to conduct extensive fieldwork and further develop her theories on social organization and kinship.

Contributions to Anthropology and Sociology

1. Study of Kinship and Caste: Karve’s work on kinship structures and the caste system in India remains her most influential contribution. Her book, “Kinship Organization in India” (1953), is a seminal text that explores the complex kinship patterns across different Indian communities. She argued that kinship systems are shaped by cultural, religious, and regional factors, demonstrating that Indian society cannot be understood through a monolithic lens.

2. Yuganta: The End of an Epoch: One of Karve’s most celebrated works is “Yuganta: The End of an Epoch” (1969), where she analyzed characters from the Mahabharata. Rather than viewing the epic solely as a religious text, she examined it as a reflection of Indian social and moral values. Through Yuganta, Karve presented the Mahabharata’s characters as complex human beings with flaws and virtues, highlighting themes of morality, duty, and social roles in ancient Indian society. This work showcased her ability to bridge literature and anthropology, interpreting mythological characters in a sociological context.

3. Exploration of Caste Dynamics: Karve provided a nuanced perspective on caste as an evolving social structure, influenced by both historical and regional contexts. In her studies, she argued that caste is not a uniform institution but one that differs across regions, adapting to social and economic changes. Karve’s work on caste systems is particularly valuable in its examination of inter-caste dynamics and the regional variations of caste practices, which challenged the notion of a homogenous caste system in India.

4. Focus on Regional Diversity: Unlike many contemporaries, Karve paid close attention to regional variations in social customs, language, and kinship patterns, advocating for a localized understanding of Indian society. She believed that understanding India’s cultural diversity required a focus on local customs and traditions, which she considered essential for an accurate portrayal of Indian social structures.

India is a nation characterized by diverse cultures, languages, religions, and traditions, yet it has historically demonstrated a profound sense of cultural unity. This unity, often referred to as the “Unity in Diversity” ethos, is deeply rooted in India’s social, spiritual, and historical fabric. Despite regional differences, the shared values, beliefs, and practices that span the country create a collective identity that binds Indians together.

Ancient Foundations of Cultural Unity

India’s cultural unity can be traced back to ancient civilizations like the Indus Valley Civilization and the Vedic period, during which fundamental ideas of social and spiritual life began to take shape. Texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and the Ramayana spread across regions, laying down a shared foundation of ethical values, spiritual beliefs, and societal norms that continued to influence successive generations. These texts, regardless of linguistic or regional differences, presented universal principles on morality, duty, and human relationships, which transcended individual communities.

The spread of Buddhism and Jainism also contributed to cultural unity by promoting values like compassion, non-violence, and tolerance. These religions spread from their points of origin to different parts of India and beyond, fostering interregional exchanges and a sense of interconnectedness among people of various backgrounds.

Linguistic and Religious Diversity within Unity

India is home to 22 official languages and over a thousand dialects, but linguistic diversity has not hindered the sense of unity. Sanskrit served as a unifying classical language in ancient India, with Tamil and Prakrit also playing similar roles in specific regions. These languages facilitated literary and cultural exchanges, enabling people from different regions to access and share each other’s philosophies, stories, and religious teachings.

In terms of religion, India embraces Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, and other indigenous faiths, each with its distinct practices and rituals. However, festivals like Diwali, Eid, Christmas, and Vaisakhi are celebrated across communities, often with a sense of collective joy. This interfaith acceptance fosters social harmony and reinforces a unified cultural spirit that respects and celebrates religious diversity.

The Role of Art, Music, and Literature

Indian art, music, and literature are integral to its cultural unity. Classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam, Kathak, and Odissi have regional origins but are now celebrated nationally, representing a shared cultural heritage. Similarly, Indian classical music—with the Hindustani and Carnatic traditions—binds people with its emphasis on spirituality, devotion, and emotional expression.

Indian literature also reflects cultural unity. From epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana to the works of poets like Kabir, Mirabai, and Rabindranath Tagore, Indian literature often addresses universal themes of love, devotion, and morality that resonate across linguistic and cultural boundaries. Literary traditions in India have consistently reflected a shared value system, bridging regions and bringing people together through stories and philosophy.

The Role of Social and Political Institutions

India’s democratic framework has played a vital role in fostering cultural unity. The Constitution of India emphasizes secularism, equality, and social justice, ensuring that people from various cultural and religious backgrounds are treated equally under the law. The system of reservations and affirmative action for marginalized communities reflects India’s commitment to inclusive growth and social cohesion.

Festivals like Republic Day and Independence Day are celebrated nationwide, transcending regional identities and reinforcing a shared national identity. Educational institutions also contribute by promoting cultural awareness and celebrating the diversity within the country, thus instilling a sense of unity among young Indians.

Modern Challenges and Cultural Unity

While India’s cultural unity remains robust, modern challenges such as regionalism, linguistic differences, and communal tensions occasionally threaten this unity. Nevertheless, grassroots movements, educational initiatives, and community dialogues continue to play a significant role in bridging divides. Media, technology, and interstate migration have further contributed to a blending of cultures, bringing people closer together.

Social stratification in Muslim societies, despite Islamic teachings of equality, has emerged due to various historical, economic, and cultural factors. In many Muslim communities, especially in South Asia and the Middle East, society is divided along lines of ethnicity, lineage, economic status, occupation, and even sectarian affiliations.

In South Asia, for example, Muslims are often divided into groups resembling caste-like structures: Ashraf, Ajlaf, and Arzal. The Ashraf category includes those with claimed Arab, Persian, or Central Asian ancestry, often viewed as having higher social prestige. Ajlaf Muslims are typically local converts and associated with trades and crafts, while the Arzal category includes groups traditionally considered “low” occupations, facing social exclusion. Endogamy (marriage within one’s group) is common, which reinforces these divisions.

In the Middle East, stratification is also shaped by tribal affiliations and ethnicity, such as distinctions between Arabs, Kurds, and Berbers. Economic disparities further deepen stratification, particularly in the Gulf states, where wealthy elites coexist alongside low-wage migrant workers, leading to significant social and economic divides. Additionally, sectarian divisions between Sunni and Shia Muslims play a role, particularly in countries like Iraq, Bahrain, and Lebanon, where such affiliations often influence social status and political representation.

Despite these divisions, efforts are ongoing to address inequalities, such as affirmative action policies, educational initiatives, and economic reforms in some Muslim-majority countries. These efforts aim to reduce the social disparities that persist in these societies, working toward a vision of unity that aligns with Islamic principles of equality and social justice.

In urban areas, occupational classes are often divided based on the nature of work, income levels, education, and skill requirements. Broadly, these classes include the upper class, middle class, and working or lower class. Each of these categories reflects different levels of economic security, social status, and quality of life, shaped by the varying demands and rewards of urban occupations.

The upper class in urban areas typically includes high-income professionals, business owners, senior executives, and industrialists. These individuals are often characterized by significant wealth, high levels of education, and managerial or ownership roles. Their jobs offer financial stability, access to luxury housing, and influence over social and political matters in the city.

The middle class encompasses a wide range of professions, from office workers and teachers to technicians, healthcare professionals, and small business owners. Members of the middle class often have moderate income, stable employment, and access to better educational and healthcare facilities. This class is marked by a desire for upward mobility, typically valuing education and professional development to secure a better quality of life.

The working or lower class includes those employed in manual labor, service-oriented jobs, retail, and other low-wage positions. Examples include construction workers, factory employees, cleaners, and food service workers. While essential to urban economies, these occupations are often characterized by lower wages, minimal job security, and limited access to social benefits. This class typically faces financial instability and may lack upward mobility without additional support or education.

Irawati Karve (1953: 93) identified the northern zone as the region that lies between the Himalayas to the north and the Vindhya ranges to the south. We can describe the basic structure and process of kinship system in this area in terms of four features that is i) kinship groups, ii) kinship terminology iii) marriage rules, and iv) ceremonial exchange of gifts among kin.

Kinship Groups

Sociological studies in various parts of North India show the predominance of social groups based on the principles of co-operation and kinship between men. 

i) Patrilineage: We can say that broadly speaking kinship organisation in North India is based on unilineal descent groups based on male descent. Members of patrilineages form land holding cooperate groups that may also engage in conflict with similar but rival groups.

ii) Clan and Lineage groups: They are both based on the principle of descent from a common ancestor or ancestress, depending upon whether the group is patrilineal or matrilineal. When the ancestor can be actually traced, the group is a lineage but when it goes so far back as the ancestor becomes a mythical figure then it is known as a clan. In North India, there is both lineage and clan exogamy. In the jati based society, we also have gotra exogamy where a gotra refers to an ancient ancestor, a mythological sage.

iii) Caste and Subcaste: A Caste usually refers to a jati or a local group but many units known as castes refer to a community that has a name and occupation but may be sub-divided into smaller units based on some criteria that separates them out for marriage. For example the name of the overall caste may be Aggarwal, but there may exist sub-castes within this community based on some character like relative purity of past marriage, a slightly differentoccupation or some other marker. For example one sub-caste may compose of dealers in grain while another to dealers in gold and silver.

iv) Fictive Kin: We should also mention, the recognition of fictive kinship in Indian society. Often, people, who are not related either by descent o r marriage, form the bonds of fictive kinship with each other. for example a woman may tie a rakhi on a man and he becomes her fictive brother. Among Christians the practice of naming a person as Godfather or Godmother at the time of baptism of the child is an institutionalized form of fictive kinship.

Kinship Terminology

i) Descriptive Nature of North Indian Kinship Terms: The kinship terminology is the expression of kinship relations in linguistic terms. In the case of North India, we can call the system of terminology as bifurcate collateral where each kinship term is descriptive. A descriptive kin term is unique and used for only one relationship. Unlike the English terms, uncle, aunty, cousin, which do not reveal age, patrilateral/matrilateral ties, the North Indian kinship terms are very clear. For example, when we say chachera bhai, it can be easily translated as father’s younger brother’s (chacha’s) son, who stands in the relationship of a brother (bhai) to the speaker. Similarly, mamera bhai means mother’s brother’s (mama’s) son. We find a clear-cut distinction made between parallel and cross-cousins. The children of one’s brother are bhatija (for male child) and bhatiji (for female child). The children of one’s sister are bhanja (for male child) and bhanji (for female child).

ii) Kinship Terms Signifying Social Behaviour: The concept of kinship behavior was given by A.R. Radcliffe-Brown. He identified three kinds of kinship rules that inform kinship behaviour.

1) Unity of the Sibling Group

2) Distance of adjacent generations

3) Merging of alternate generations

Both kinship terms and behaviour reflect these principles. Two major forms of kinship behaviour are joking relationships and avoidance relationships. Both serve the same function, to reduce tension and act as a cathartic mechanism in case of relationships that are precarious. These are relationships that have an ambiguous character and the norms tend to be liable to infraction.

For example, Oscar Lewis (1958: 189), in his study of a North Indian village, has described the pattern and relationship between a person and his elder brother’s wife. This is popularly known as Devar-Bhabhi relationship, which is characteristically a joking relationship. By the rules of Hindu marriage a man can possibly marry his elder brother’s widow but not his younger brother’s wife. The latter should be seen as a daughter-in-law. However in most cases there is no actual possibility of such a union occurring yet the potential sexuality of the relationship remains. Thus the tension is masked through joking.

As a contrast to the joking relationship is the behaviour of avoidance between a woman and her husband’s father. Similarly, she has to avoid her husband’s elder brother. The term for husband’s father is shvasur and for husband’s elder brother is bhasur. Bhasur is a combination of the Sanskrit word bhratr (brother) and shvasur (father-in-law), and is, therefore, like father-in-law.

Marriage Rules

In the context of North India, we find that people know whom not to marry. In sociological terms, the same thing can be expressed by saying that there are negative rules of marriage in North India. We can also say that marriage is allowed only outside a defined limit. Let us see what this limit or the rule of exogamy is in North India.

i) Clan Exogamy: Belonging to one’s natal descent line is best expressed in matters of marriage. No man is allowed to marry a daughter of his patriline. In North India lineage ties upto five or six generations are generally remembered and marriage alliances are not allowed within this range. In such a situation the lineage turns into the clan and we speak of gotra (clan) and gotra bhai (clan mates).

ii) The Four Clan Rule : In Irawati Karve’s (1953: 118) words, according to this rule, a man must not marry a woman from (i) his father’s gotra, (ii) his mother’s gotra, (iii) his father’s mother’s gotra, and

(iv) his mother’s mother’s gotra. Another related kind of exogamy, which exists in North India, is village exogamy. A village usually has members of one or two lineages living in it. Members belonging to the same lineage are not permitted to intermarry. This principle extends even to the villages, which have more than two lineages. In other words, a boy and a girl in a village in North India are like a brother and sister and hence cannot intermarry. iii) Marriages within the Sub Caste: Associated with local terms is the idea of the status of various units within the sub-caste. Taking the example of the Sarjupari Brahmin of Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh, studied by Louis Dumont (1966: 107), we find that each of the three sub-castes of Sarjupari Brahmins of this area is divided into three houses (kin groups or lineages) which range hierarchically in status. The marriages are always arranged from lower to higher house. This means that women are always given to the family, which is placed in the house above her own. In this context, we canalso refer to the popular saying in North India that ‘the creeper must not go back’. The same idea is reflected by another North Indian saying that ‘pao pujke, ladki nahin le jainge’ (i.e., once we have washed the feet of the bride groom during the wedding ceremony, we cannot accept a girl from his family, because this will mean that we allow that side to wash our feet or allow the reversal of relationships). In North India, such a reversal is not allowed and thus, we find the rule of prohibition on marriage with patrilateral cross-cousins.

Ceremonial Exchange of Gifts among Kin

Ceremonial exchange of gifts on the occasions of life cycle rituals provides us with the understanding of a patterned behaviour among various categories of kin. Generally, the bride-givers, in correspondence with their inferior status visa-vis bride-takers, initiate the process of gift-giving during marriage and continue to give greater amounts of gifts. In other words, you can say that gift-giving and receiving is a well-defined social activity (see Jain 1996 b). Let us take example of this behaviour.

A.C. Mayer (1960: 232) has described in his study of kinship in a village in Malwa that all gifts given by one’s mother’s brother are called mamere. In contrast to the gifts given by the mother’s brother, there are gifts known as ban, given by one’s agnates. Ban is the term used also for the gift, which is given by other relatives such as the groom’s sister’s husband to the groom’s wife’s brother. This shows that the groom’s sister’s husband (or father’s sister’s husband in the context of the ascending generation) is viewed to be a part of agnatic kin vis-a-vis the groom’s wife’s brother (or mother’s brother for the ascending generation).

In traditional Hindu society, Anuloma and Pratiloma marriages refer to two types of inter-caste marriages governed by social hierarchies. These concepts emerge from Manusmriti and other ancient Hindu texts, which outline permissible social relationships and reflect historical views on caste and social order.

Anuloma marriage refers to a union where a man from a higher caste marries a woman from a lower caste. In the context of Hindu society, Anuloma was generally more accepted as it aligned with the traditional view of maintaining the social hierarchy through male lineage. For example, a Brahmin man marrying a Kshatriya or Vaishya woman would be considered Anuloma. While not ideal, such marriages were sometimes tolerated because they did not disrupt the perceived social order.

In contrast, Pratiloma marriage involves a man from a lower caste marrying a woman from a higher caste, which was traditionally frowned upon and often strictly prohibited. Such unions were believed to invert the social hierarchy, challenging caste norms and potentially leading to social instability. For instance, a Vaishya or Shudra man marrying a Brahmin woman would be viewed as Pratiloma, and historically, these marriages faced strong disapproval or even sanctions.

Today, with modernization and legal reforms, caste-based restrictions on marriage have diminished, and both Anuloma and Pratiloma marriages are protected under the law. However, these terms continue to illustrate the historical influence of caste on marital norms and the longstanding complexities within social hierarchies in Hindu society.

Sanskaras are sacred rituals or rites of passage in Hinduism, intended to purify and sanctify individuals at various stages of life. They mark important milestones, shaping a person’s spiritual, ethical, and social development. Traditionally, there are 16 major sanskaras from birth to death, although practices may vary among different Hindu communities.

Here’s an overview of the primary sanskaras:

1. Garbhadhana (Conception): Performed at conception, this sanskara is intended to invoke blessings for a healthy and virtuous child. It is the beginning of a person’s spiritual journey, symbolizing the intent to bring life into the world with divine guidance.

2. Pumsavana (Fetus Protection): Conducted in the early stages of pregnancy, this ritual seeks protection and health for the developing fetus, especially ensuring the child’s physical and mental well-being.

3. Simantonnayana (Hair-Parting Ceremony): Held during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester, this sanskara blesses the mother and seeks the health of the unborn child, symbolizing care and nurture.

4. Jatakarma (Birth Ceremony): Performed soon after birth, this ceremony welcomes the newborn and involves prayers for the baby’s longevity, health, and intelligence. The father often touches the baby’s lips with honey or ghee as a symbol of purity and sweetness in life.

5. Namakarana (Naming Ceremony): Conducted on the 11th or 12th day after birth, this sanskara gives the child a name, which is chosen based on astrology or family tradition. It signifies the child’s unique identity within the community.

6. Nishkramana (First Outing): This ritual takes place when the child is around four months old. It involves taking the baby outside for the first time, usually to a temple, to introduce the child to the world and seek divine blessings.

7. Annaprashana (First Feeding): This sanskara is performed when the child is around six months old, marking the introduction of solid food (typically rice) into the child’s diet. It symbolizes physical growth and strength.

8. Chudakarana (First Haircut): Known as the mundan ceremony, this sanskara involves the first haircut or shaving of the child’s head, often performed between the ages of 1 and 3. It is believed to promote purity and hygiene.

9. Karnavedha (Ear Piercing): Ear piercing, done for both boys and girls, is believed to enhance intellect and prevent health problems. It also marks an important cultural and aesthetic tradition.

10. Vidyarambha (Beginning of Education): This ritual marks the start of formal education. The child, usually around 5 years old, is taught to write the first letters, often in a temple or under the guidance of a priest or teacher.

11. Upanayana (Sacred Thread Ceremony): One of the most significant sanskaras, the Upanayana is traditionally performed for boys, especially among Brahmins. It signifies the child’s initiation into formal education, responsibility, and Vedic studies, marking spiritual and intellectual growth.

12. Vedarambha (Beginning of Vedic Study): This ritual initiates the formal study of the Vedas, led by a guru. The student embarks on the spiritual and intellectual path of learning sacred texts and ethical teachings.

13. Keshanta (First Shaving of Beard): Performed during adolescence, this sanskara marks the transition into adulthood, particularly for boys. It symbolizes maturity and readiness to take on responsibilities.

14. Samavartana (Graduation or Completion of Studies): This ritual is performed at the end of one’s formal education, marking readiness to re-enter society as a knowledgeable and responsible adult. It symbolizes the student’s preparedness for life’s duties.

15. Vivaha (Marriage): One of the most important sanskaras, marriage symbolizes the union of two individuals for the purpose of creating a family. It is a social and spiritual bond, intended to continue family lineage and fulfill religious responsibilities.

16. Antyeshti (Last Rites): The final sanskara, it involves rituals at the time of death, preparing the soul for its journey to the afterlife. Antyeshti, or cremation, is intended to release the soul from the physical body and facilitate its onward spiritual journey.

These sanskaras are designed to purify, protect, and guide individuals at every stage of life, fostering a strong sense of cultural identity, spiritual growth, and moral values within the Hindu tradition.

The folk-urban continuum is a sociological concept introduced by Robert Redfield in the mid-20th century to describe the gradual transition between traditional rural (folk) and modern urban societies. Rather than seeing folk and urban cultures as strictly separate, Redfield argued that they exist on a spectrum of social, economic, and cultural characteristics, where rural and urban communities blend and interact in a dynamic and continuous manner.

In folk societies, social organization is typically homogeneous, kinship-based, and tightly knit, with strong community bonds and adherence to tradition. These communities rely on subsistence agriculture and have limited exposure to outside influences, resulting in a slower pace of change and a focus on local customs. Social roles are often clearly defined, with values centered on collective identity, religious beliefs, and customary law.

On the other hand, urban societies are characterized by heterogeneity, individualism, and diverse social roles. People in urban settings often engage in specialized, non-agricultural occupations, contributing to a complex economic system. Social mobility is more common, and individual identity is shaped by factors beyond kinship, such as profession, education, and personal achievements. Urban areas are more exposed to global influences, technological advances, and cultural diversity, fostering rapid social and cultural changes.

The folk-urban continuum recognizes that many communities lie somewhere between these two extremes. For instance, semi-urban areas or peri-urban villages may blend elements of both folk and urban life, such as combining traditional occupations with wage labor or balancing communal values with urban individualism. This continuum highlights how rural and urban societies interact, adapt, and influence each other as societies modernize, underscoring the dynamic nature of social and cultural change in diverse settings.

Overall, the folk-urban continuum offers a nuanced framework for understanding the gradual and fluid transition from traditional to modern lifestyles, emphasizing the interconnectedness and adaptation of societies across different stages of development.

Introduction

The present article deals with inclusive and exclusive forms of marriage, i.e., endogamy and exogamy. Endogamy is a form of marriage where the union between two adults is solemnised within a social group. Endogamy across the world is considered to be a product of customary practices where a particular social group or tribe solemnises a marriage out of responsibility and with the feeling of not violating their customs and traditions. Endogamous marriage is said to carry a restrictive force along with it since it only limits the marriage within the walls of a particular social group. However, the said marriage is solemnised among various tribes and groups to respect their traditions and to secure their social image among other groups. On the other hand, an exogamous marriage is one where the marriage is solemnised outside the social group. Unlike endogamy, exogamous marriage is of free and flexible nature. There is no social or societal pressure in the case of exogamous marriages. It also benefits the offspring of such marriage since the genes of an offspring are dynamic in nature and the ambit of gene structure in terms of fitness level also increases. 

What is endogamy

The term endogamy relates back to the Greek origin, wherein the two words, i.e., ‘endo’ means within and ‘gamy’ means marriage. Thus, if comprehended together, its meaning comes out to be a marriage that takes place within a community, tribe, social group, and class. It is a customary product since the main reason why it is followed around the world is that the forefathers or ancestors used to practice it to maintain their uniqueness and social status. Thus, satisfying the essentials of a custom to be of existence for a long time, it is now practiced among different tribes and social groups. Endogamous marriages, further, unlike exogamous marriages, can be termed to be the decision of the leader or the eldest man of the tribe or a family, since from earlier times till now, society has been patriarchal in nature, given certain exceptions that have emerged in modern times.

The paramount motive behind the concept of endogamy was and is to secure and maintain the inclusivity of a particular group. Since it is the belief among various tribes that upon marriage outside the group, a mixed culture community is formed which is far away from the ambit of either of the parties to the marriage, leading to the destruction of the honour of the social group. The next reason can be considered to be the belief and adherence to the traditions of the group whereby marrying within the group respects and follows the long aged traditions. The saudi-arabian marriages are endogamous in nature because of the above reasons. Similarly, Rajputs and Syrian Christians in Indian society also follow the concept of endogamous marriages. 

Endogamy in India

The practice of endogamy takes its origin from the rigid caste structure of earlier Indian society. The endogamous marriage practice is the product of caste system in India. Until 1950, there used to be a division of the community and groups based on position in the caste system, where even  the occupation and various social activities were divided among the different caste groups. In ancient India, when the Aryans came around in 1500 BC, they began their conquest and control practices in north India because, after their arrival, they showed deniability to the local traditions and cultures. After they had conquered everything they could, they pushed the local people to southern India. And then they established their own cultures and traditions wherein they placed priests in the first place, warriors in the second, and merchants and traders in the third. The first and the second placer used to have many political disputes in respect of their status in the new social tradition. After some time, the priest won this battle and acquired the foremost place in the social caste system in ancient India. The Indian Government in 1950 passed a law abolishing discrimination on the grounds of caste and creed. Therefore, it can be said endogamy is not a form of marriage rather it is a rule of marriage that is the product of the rigid caste in India which was created by the Aryans. 

Types of endogamy

Caste endogamy

As the name suggests, caste endogamy refers to the solemnization of marriage within the caste. For example, marriage is to take place within the Kshatriya caste only, not with an individual who belongs to the Shudra caste. 

Tribal endogamy

A tribe can be termed a social group in which people live together, have the same aspirations, speak the same language, and share the same history. People in such a tribe can be related or not. Tribal endogamy means marriage within the tribe. For example, a male member and female member belonging to Tartharol clan of Todas tibe of Nilgiri Hills shall only marry among themselves and not any individual of other tribes. 

Class endogamy

The class system is very elastic and fundamental in nature. There is no rigidity in a class system since it is totally dependent on the personal and socio-economic achievements of an individual. An individual can move from one class to another on the basis of his achievements. Class endogamy refers to a marriage that can only be solemnised within a certain class in society. 

Race endogamy

Racial endogamy means marriage within the race. For example, people of the indo-aryan race would solemnise marriages within their race only. 

Inbreeding

Inbreeding is the technique where genetically related organisms are mated together. Genetically related means when two or more species share a common ancestor. Inbreeding among closely related organisms leads to homozygosity, which means there are chances that the offspring of such mating would have traits that are deleterious or recessive. Such offspring’s fitness and health levels are temporarily decreased as compared to outbreds, i.e., offspring of outbreeding. 

Inbreeding may also lead to inbreeding depression. It is a scientific term given to the harmful effects it has on the offspring of inbreeding. This depression can cause low fitness levels, birth defects, and birth deaths. An individual of outbreeding is comparatively fitter than the inbreds. 

Inbreeding is also considered a sole reason for pushing a species to the verge of extinction. The paramount example is Charles II of the House of Hapsburgs, the last ruler of the Spanish Hapsburg empire. Charles II faced numerous health problems, among which the most horrifying was that he was infertile and thus could not reproduce the next generation of his empire. Due to the above mentioned health defects, inbreeding is considered to be of dangerous nature and is prevented in many places around the world.   

What is exogamy

Exogamy is exactly the opposite of endogamous marriage. The exogamy form of marriage can be defined as the solemnization of marriage outside of the particular community, tribe, social group, etc. The origin and emergence of this practice of marriage can be traced back to earlier times. For example, the House of Habsburg, wherein, at last, the royal line of the family went into extinction because of the various health effects of inbreeding, which refrained the last king from producing further generations. The object of exogamy marriages is to prevent the marriages of all close relatives, i.e., those who are related to each other by blood or genetically. 

Theories on exogamy

The concept of exogamy has some theories, or rather arguments, for its existence put forth by various sociologists and ethnologists. John Ferguson McLennan, a profound theologist, argues that the concept of exogamy was introduced due to the scarcity and unavailability of women within the tribe. That is why men began marrying women outside their tribe. 

On the other hand, Emile Durkheim gave a religious angle to the birth of this concept. According to him, exogamous marriages are based upon the taboo religion, which states that marriages within the tribe or clan are prohibited because the members of such a clan share a sacred and religious relationship like brothers and sisters, and they carry out such a practice to respect their gods. There was another theory given by him. According to him, exogamy emerged as a marriage practice because the male members of the tribe started pushing other male members out of the tribe, so this led to marriage outside the tribe.

Further, Edvard Westermark gave a scientific reason for the emergence of such marriages, where he states that the probability of faulty genes in exogamous marriages is less as compared to in marriages because in an endogamous marriage the genes are identical to each other where exogamous marriages provide a wide variety of nonidentical genes, thereby limiting the chances of faulty genes in the offspring.   

Forms of exogamy

The following stated forms of exogamous marriages are in context with Indian society where they showcase how and what are the exogamous forms of marriages. 

Gotra Exogamy

Gotra is the class. They are classified as a sub-division of the Hindu religion. It can be termed a lineage, wherein it refers to the people who are successors in an unbroken male line from a common male ancestor. For example, Atri, Chhikara, and Sharma, etc. People with the same gotra are considered to be brothers and sisters because they are stated to have shared the same lineage from a common male ancestor. Gotra exogamy can be termed as marrying an individual outside of his/her gotra.

Pravar Exogamy

Pravar is said to be a spiritual bond, a bond that is formed when two adults say the name of the same saint at some spiritual or social function. The term ‘saint’ here refers to a person or a mythological person who is considered to be holy.

Village Exogamy

‘Village’ here refers to the relationship of the tribe. Tribes are considered to be a close form of society, which makes every person inclusive of it. Marrying outside the tribe or village is called ‘village exogamy.’ For example, the Munda tribe of Madhya Pradesh.

Pinda Exogamy

Pinda means the same parentage in India. Hindu religion prohibits such marriage as it is considered to be against the Hindu traditions, customs, and natural laws. According to Brahaspati, sapinda relations extend to five maternal generations and seven paternal generations. In accordance with Hindu law, Sapindas, up to five maternal generations and seven paternal generations cannot marry among themselves.  

Difference between endogamy and exogamy forms of marriages

Cultural processes among tribal communities refer to the ways in which indigenous traditions, values, and social structures are maintained, adapted, or transformed in response to both internal dynamics and external influences. Tribal cultures in India and around the world are marked by their unique languages, rituals, belief systems, and social customs, which are deeply rooted in the natural environment and community-based living.

One significant cultural process is enculturation, where each generation learns and internalizes the customs and practices of its ancestors. Through enculturation, tribal societies preserve their oral traditions, folklore, music, dance, and crafts. Such cultural transmission fosters a strong sense of identity and continuity within the community, sustaining traditional lifestyles and social organization based on kinship and communal bonds.

However, acculturation also plays a role, especially as tribal communities increasingly interact with non-tribal societies due to urbanization, globalization, and government policies. This process involves adopting certain elements from mainstream cultures, such as language, clothing, education, or economic practices, often due to the influence of nearby cities, educational institutions, or markets. While acculturation can lead to beneficial exchanges, it may also put pressure on traditional ways of life and introduce social challenges.

Modernization is another cultural process impacting tribal communities, involving a shift toward formal education, wage labor, and exposure to technology. As tribal members engage with modern occupations, healthcare, and governance structures, there is often a gradual change in values, aspirations, and social norms. Some tribes have embraced these changes to improve their economic standing, while others seek to balance modern influences with the preservation of their traditional culture.

Lastly, sanskritization is observed in some tribal groups, where they adopt certain practices or rituals from higher Hindu castes to gain social status. This process can involve adopting Hindu festivals, worship practices, or dietary habits. While sanskritization may offer avenues for social mobility, it may also contribute to erosion of unique tribal identities and belief systems.

In sum, cultural processes among tribals are complex and multidimensional, reflecting a dynamic interplay between tradition, adaptation, and external influence. These processes shape the evolving identities of tribal communities, highlighting both the resilience of indigenous cultures and the challenges they face in a rapidly changing world.

Caste panchayats, based on caste system in India, are caste-specific juries of elders for villages or higher-level communities in India. They are distinct from gram panchayats in that the latter, as statutory bodies, serve all villagers regardless of caste as a part of the Indian government, although they operate on the same principles. A panchayat could be permanent or temporary.

The term panchayat implies a body of five individuals, although the number may vary in practice. The number is kept odd to ensure there is no tie when a decision is made. Panchayat members are appointed by consensus.

Panchayats, the council of five elders, had existed since Vedic period (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE) from the times of Ramayana and Mahabharata. Kautilya (Chanakya) also provides the 4th century BCE description of decentralised autonomous governing organisation for each village based on the council of five where the king ruled the empire based on the conglomeration of villages. The earliest mention in English of Panchayats was made by Ram Raz in a letter to H.S. Graeme of the Madras Council around 1828.

Historical mentions of panchayats include the Parsi Panchayat in 1818, the Aror Bans Panchayat at Lahore in 1888, Dalit panchayats in 1907, and the Prachin Agrawal Jain Panchayat of Delhi, founded in the late 19th century, which runs Delhi’s famous Bird Hospital and some of its oldest temples.

Gram panchayat or sabha (village councils) were usually controlled by the elected members of panchayats for maintaining the social order and the resolution of criminal and civil disputes. There were also panchayats for resolving inter-caste conflicts. Gram panchayats were legally formalised under the panchayati raj system as a decentralised grassroot form of local governance.

Caste panchayats (caste councils) have members of particular castes who follow caste-based social norms, rules, religious values and settle conflict among its own members. Each caste, including upper castes and dalits, had own caste panchayat. They repair wells, organise festivals, look after the sick of their castes. These caste panchayats existed as the form of local governance much before the gram panchayats came into being.

The caste system is a complex social hierarchy prevalent in India and among various South Asian communities, rooted in ancient traditions and religious texts. Traditionally, the caste system divides society into rigid social groups, or castes, each with its own defined roles, responsibilities, and social status. The origins of the caste system are often linked to the Varna system described in Hindu scriptures, which categorizes society into four primary groups: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (traders and agriculturists), and Shudras (laborers and service providers).

Over time, the Varna system evolved into a more intricate structure of jatis or sub-castes, resulting in thousands of distinct groups that reflect regional, occupational, and social variations. The caste system is characterized by endogamy, where individuals marry within their caste, thereby maintaining social boundaries and cultural homogeneity. Social mobility is generally limited, with most individuals remaining within their caste throughout their lives.

The caste system has profound implications for various aspects of life, including marriage, occupation, education, and political representation. Historically, the caste system has been associated with social stratification and discrimination, particularly against lower castes, often referred to as Dalits or Scheduled Castes, who faced significant social exclusion and economic disadvantage. This discrimination is rooted in historical notions of purity and pollution, where higher castes are considered more “pure” and lower castes often face social stigma.

In contemporary India, the caste system remains a significant social force, despite constitutional protections and affirmative action policies aimed at promoting equality and social justice. The Reservation System provides quotas for education and government jobs to members of lower castes, aiming to rectify historical injustices. However, caste-based identities still persist, influencing political affiliations, social networks, and cultural practices.

Overall, the caste system as a social system continues to be a topic of extensive debate and analysis, as it reflects the complexities of social organization, cultural identity, and the ongoing struggle for equality within Indian society. While modernization and urbanization have altered some aspects of the caste system, its deep-rooted traditions and structures continue to impact the lives of millions, shaping social interactions and opportunities in significant ways.

A dominant caste is one which preponderates numerically over other castes and also wields preponderant economic and political power. A large and powerful caste group can be more easily dominant if its position in the local caste hierarchy is not too low. The concept of dominant caste was introduced in 1959 by sociologist M. N. Srinivas.

Srinivas asserts that to be a dominant caste, a caste must have the following characteristics:

• It must own a sizeable amount of cultivable land.
• It must be of considerable numerical strength.
• It must enjoy a high place in the local caste hierarchy.

Western education, jobs in administration and political clout and contacts have been considered by subsequent authors to be additional factors of dominance.

Several caste groups are considered as dominant caste in several parts of India, depending upon their economic status and political representation in the region. In Bihar, Koeri, Kurmi and Yadav are considered as dominant caste groups, as these middle peasant castes became prime moving force in the post land reforms period by increasing their landholding at the cost of big landlords and dislodging the erstwhile elite groups from political power. In south India, castes like Lingayat and Vokkaliga are considered as dominant castes. Author Alakh Sharma notes that in the post independence India, the upper middle castes of Bihar, which included Koeri, Kurmi and Yadav caste, were the beneficiary of incomplete Green Revolution. This social group cornered the institutional credit and were able to produce much more from their land as compared to the upper caste landholders. The failure of upper caste big peasants and landlords in using their land with productivity led to loss of land by way of selling. Sharma observes that in comparison to other social groups, the dispossession of land from the upper caste happened at a higher rate. This transformation gradually change the economic profile of rural area in states like Bihar. Riding upon the wave of change, the dominant groups from upper middle caste viz. Koeri, Kurmi and Yadav rose to prominence in rural agrarian society. This change in hierarchy in the space of economy also elevated these castes as new political elite of the state, which was followed by defeat and weakening of upper caste controlled Indian National Congress in Bihar. The erstwhile dominant caste in Bihar were Rajput and Bhumihar, who until 1967, dominated the rural landscape. However, due to intense rivalry between them, they lost in political space to the middle castes, the trio of Yadav, Koeri and Kurmi. Later, the upper caste moved to cities in search of more opportunities, leading to a vacuum in the dominant space occupied by them in rural areas in all walks of life. This vacuum was filled by newly prosperous upper middle castes, who gradually took over the dominant space in rural areas. It is believed that the economic and educational development of certain Backward Castes (dubbed as upper middle caste) made them conscious of their rights and numerical superiority, which raised their representation in democratic politics, and by 1967, they emerged as political force in states like Bihar.

In Haryana, Jats emerged as the dominant caste. They were owner of large swathes of land in some of the districts of Haryana, as for example in Rohtak district, nearly sixty percent of agricultural land was owned by Jats. The other caste groups in such region were in relation of service providers with the Jats. By early 1920s, the superiority enjoyed by Brahmins due to their position in ritual hierarchy declined, with elevation of Jats as the most dominant caste groups. After the partition of Gujarat and Maharashtra, Marathas emerged as a dominant caste in Maharashtra. The rise of Marathas to prominence had its roots in British economic policy. In the pre-independence India, the introduction of cash crops, specially cotton and sugarcane changed the economic profile of villages. The Marathas, being primarily an agrarian caste-cluster, controlled the production of both these cash crops. They were also involved in Anti-Brahmin movement to defy the ritual hierarchy imposed upon them by sacerdotal authorities. This ensued their emergence as the dominant caste in Maharashtra.

In Islam, marriage is fundamentally regarded as a contract (nikah) rather than merely a social or ceremonial event. This contractual nature is emphasized in Islamic teachings and legal frameworks, underscoring the mutual rights and responsibilities of both partners. The nikah represents a solemn agreement that brings together two individuals and their families, with the intention of establishing a lifelong partnership grounded in love, respect, and cooperation.

The essential components of a Muslim marriage contract include the offer and acceptance (ijab and qubul) between the bride and groom, which must be expressed in the presence of witnesses. The mahr, or dower, is a crucial element of the contract, representing a mandatory gift given by the groom to the bride. This gift can take various forms, including money, jewelry, or other valuables, and serves as a sign of respect and commitment. The amount of mahr is typically negotiated before the marriage and can vary widely based on cultural practices and individual circumstances.

Islamic law stipulates specific rights and duties for both spouses, aimed at fostering a harmonious and equitable relationship. The husband is generally viewed as the provider, responsible for the financial maintenance of the family, while the wife is entitled to her own mahr, and she has the right to education and personal development. Additionally, both partners have the right to seek divorce (talaq for men and khula for women) under certain circumstances, with stipulated procedures to ensure fairness.

The contractual nature of Muslim marriage also highlights the importance of consent. Both parties must willingly enter into the marriage, and coercion is strictly prohibited. This focus on consent reflects the emphasis on individual agency and mutual agreement within the marriage.

In summary, the understanding of Muslim marriage as a contract underscores the significance of mutual rights, responsibilities, and consent. This legal framework not only provides a basis for the marital relationship but also reflects broader Islamic principles of justice, respect, and equality. As societies evolve, the practice and interpretation of Muslim marriage continue to adapt while remaining rooted in these foundational contractual elements.

India is renowned for its linguistic diversity, boasting a rich tapestry of languages that reflect the country’s vast cultural heritage. With over 1,600 languages spoken across its vast landscape, India is home to the second-largest number of languages in the world, following Papua New Guinea. This diversity stems from the country’s complex historical, ethnic, and social fabric, encompassing various regional, tribal, and community languages.

The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution recognizes 22 languages as official languages, including Hindi, Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, and Gujarati. Hindi, with over 40% of the population identifying it as their mother tongue, serves as the most widely spoken language, while English is often used as an associate official language for administrative and educational purposes. The prominence of English reflects India’s colonial history and its ongoing role in global communication, commerce, and education.

India’s linguistic landscape is not only marked by major languages but also by numerous dialects and regional variations. For instance, languages like Punjabi, Kannada, and Malayalam have distinct dialects that vary significantly within the same language. Moreover, many languages have script variations, which further enrich the linguistic diversity. For example, while Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, Punjabi is written in Gurmukhi.

The preservation of linguistic diversity in India is vital for maintaining the cultural identity of various communities. However, this diversity also poses challenges, particularly in education, communication, and administration. While efforts have been made to promote multilingual education and protect minority languages, many smaller languages face the threat of extinction as younger generations gravitate towards more dominant languages for socio-economic advancement.

Furthermore, linguistic diversity is intertwined with regional identities, influencing social dynamics and political landscapes. Language often plays a crucial role in shaping group identities, leading to movements for linguistic recognition and autonomy, such as those seen in states like Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.

In conclusion, India’s linguistic diversity is a reflection of its rich cultural mosaic and is vital to the nation’s identity. While it poses unique challenges, the country continues to strive towards embracing and preserving this diversity, ensuring that its multitude of languages thrive alongside the modern demands of globalization and development.

Caste system in India

• The word ‘Caste’ has a Portuguese origin that comes from the word ‘caste,’ which means race. 
• Caste is a hereditary and endogamous group with a common name, traditional occupation, culture, and relatively rigid mobility, forming a single homogenous community. 
• Its roots are ancient India, but the system was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, such as the Mughal Empire and the British Raj. 

Concept of Caste

It is defined as a system of Social stratification which consists of hierarchically arranged closed,endogamous strata where membership is ascriptive,contact is restricted and mobility is theoretically impossible.

Models of Caste system

Caste System through Ages 

1. Ancient Age:

•  The caste system in India has its roots in ancient times. 
• The Rigveda, which is one of the oldest Hindu scriptures, mentions the four main varnas or castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Each caste had a specific occupation, and inter-caste marriage was not allowed. 
• The caste system was based on the idea of dharma, karma, and reincarnation. 
• The Brahmins were at the top of the social hierarchy, followed by the Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

2. Colonial Times:

• The colonial period in India began in the 16th century when the Portuguese arrived in India. 
• The British colonizers further institutionalized the caste system in India. 
• The British introduced the census in 1871, which classified people based on their caste. The British also created laws that reinforced the caste system, such as the Criminal Tribes Act, which labeled certain communities as criminal tribes based on their caste.

3. Post-Colonial Times:

• After India gained independence in 1947, the Indian Constitution abolished caste-based discrimination and introduced affirmative action policies to uplift disadvantaged castes. 
• The Indian government implemented reservation policies that reserved seats in education, jobs, and politics for lower-caste communities. 
• However, the caste system continues to be a major social issue in modern-day India, with instances of caste-based discrimination, violence, and inequality still prevalent in some parts of the country. 

Features of Caste System

1. Hereditary: Caste is a hereditary system, meaning that a person’s social status is determined by the caste they are born into. There is little or no social mobility between castes.
2. Endogamous: Caste is also an endogamous system, meaning that people are expected to marry within their own caste. Inter-caste marriages are often frowned upon and can result in social ostracism. 
3. Occupation-based: Each caste is associated with a specific occupation, and individuals are expected to follow in the footsteps of their ancestors. This has resulted in occupational segregation, with certain castes being associated with specific professions. 
4. Rigid Hierarchy: The caste system is characterized by a rigid hierarchy, with Brahmins (priests) at the top and Shudras (labourers) at the bottom. Each caste has its own status and privileges, and there is little or no social interaction between different castes. 
5. Discrimination: The caste system is also characterized by discrimination against lower castes. Members of lower castes often face social and economic exclusion, and are denied access to education, healthcare, and other basic services.
6. Ritual purity: The caste system is also based on the concept of ritual purity, with each caste being assigned a particular level of purity or impurity. This has resulted in various forms of social segregation, with members of higher castes refusing to eat, drink or socialize with members of lower castes.
7. Civil and religious limitations:  Restrictions on contact, dress, speech, and rituals are imposed on every caste group in the form of civil and religious disabilities. These limitations were enforced to maintain the purity of specific caste groups. For example, individuals belonging to lower-caste groups were not allowed to access wells, and they were prohibited from entering temples.
8. Manual scavenging: Manual scavenging, which involves the removal of untreated human excreta from bucket toilets or pit latrines, became a caste-based profession. The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act 2013 has officially abolished it. 
9. Caste-based violence in India: The rise in caste-based violence is linked to incidents of inter-caste marriage and the Dalit community’s assertion of fundamental rights, such as land rights, freedom of expression, access to justice, and access to education. 
10. Caste-based reservation policy: The caste-based reservation system in India is a collection of affirmative action measures that reserve access to seats in various legislative bodies, government jobs, and enrollment in higher education institutions. For instance, Scheduled Caste groups are given 15% reservation in government services and educational institutions. 

• Regionalism is rooted in India’s diversity w.r.t. (with respect to) caste, religion, language, class etc. When all these factors get geographically concentrated, along with the feeling of relative deprivation (i.e. a feeling that their community is not able to have access or benefit from such access to the resources of the land), it is referred to as regionalism.
• Regionalism is a term used to describe the idea that people living in a particular region share a common identity based on their distinct characteristics, such as language, culture, history, and food habits. This shared identity creates a sense of togetherness among people inhabiting a region. 
  • It is important to note that local patriotism and loyalty to one’s locality, region, or state and its language and culture do not necessarily constitute regionalism
  • However, regionalism can become problematic when the interests of one region or state are asserted against the country as a whole or against another region or state in a hostile manner. 
  • In the context of India, regionalism has been one of the biggest challenges for the consolidation of the country as a nation since its independence.

Characteristics of regionalism

• It is, at times, a psychological phenomenon. For example, India and Pakistan were divided to solve problems that were perceived and feared, rather than being actually present.
• It is built around an expression of group identity as well as loyalty towards the region.

For example, the tribals in Jharkhand-Chhattisgarh area consider their land to be sacred, and trace their identity to a common ancestor of the region. They do not tolerate outside interference, especially since outsiders do not understand their ways and customs. Such outsiders may even consist of non-tribals belonging to the same state.

• It presupposes the concept of development of one’s own region without taking into consideration the interest of other regions. The recurrent and ever ongoing river water disputes between states and nations could be traced to such factors.
• Regionalism, at times, prohibits people from other regions to be benefited by a particular region. The demand for a ‘Marathwada’ (Maharashtra for Marathwadas) is a case in point here.

Types of Regionalism

1. Demand for State Autonomy
2. Supra-state Regionalism
3. Inter-state Regionalism
4. Intra-state Regional Politics or Sub-regionalism

1. Demand for State Autonomy

• Regional politics manifested in the form of people in certain states or regions demanding to secede from the Indian Union and become independent sovereign states. Such demands occurred soon after independence and are largely non- existent now.
• The important examples in this context are that of the Plebiscite Front (Kashmir), Mizo National Front (Lushei Hills of Assam), Nagaland Socialist Conference (Naga Hills District of Assam) etc.

2. Supra-state Regionalism

• It’s when certain states express their group identity by coming together to support shared interests. This identity is related to particular issues, but it doesn’t mean these states fully merge their identities into one group. Sometimes, there can be disagreements and conflicts among some states within the group.
• Eg: Dravida Nadu demand prior to the re-organisation of the states,1956. Similarly, the grouping of the North Eastern States for greater access to economic development is another instance.

3.  Inter-state Regionalism

• It is related to state boundaries and involves overlapping of one or more state identities, which threaten their interests.
• Eg: River water disputes,Maharashtra-Karnataka border dispute.

4. Intra-state Regional Politics or Sub-regionalism

• This refers to regionalism, which exists within a state of the Indian Union. It embodies the desire of a part of a state for identity and self-development. It may also reflect a notion of deprivation or exploitation of a part of the state at the expense of another. This type of regionalism can be found in many parts of India.
• Eg: Vidarbha in Maharashtra, Saurashtra in Gujarat, Telangana in Andhra Pradesh, East U.P. in Uttar Pradesh etc..

Son of Soil Theory

• The concept of Sons of the Soil (SoS) is deeply embedded in the human psyche. Sons of the soil is an elemental concept tying people to their place of birth and confers some benefits, rights, roles and responsibilities on them, which may not apply to others.
• Sons of Soil Doctrine underlies the view that a state specifically belongs to the main linguistic group inhabiting it or that the state constitutes the exclusive ‘homeland’ of its main language speakers who are the ‘sons of the soil’ or the ‘local residents’.
• All others who live there or are settled there and whose mother tongue is not the state`s main language are declared ‘outsiders’. These outsiders might have lived in the state for a long time, or have migrated there more recently, but they are not regarded as the ‘sons of the soil’.
• Eg:- campaign for safeguard of interests of Maharashtrians by the Shiv Sena, clashes among Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims in Assam, among others.
• A sons-of-the-soil (SoS) conflict has the following core features: 
  • First, it involves conflict between members of a minority ethnic group concentrated in some region of a country, and relatively recent, ethnically distinct migrants to this region from other parts of the same country. 
  • Second, the members of the minority group think of their group as indigenous, and as rightfully possessing the area as their group’s ancestral (or at least very long-standing) home. 
  • By “conflict” we mean competition and dispute over scarce resources such as land, jobs, educational quotas, government services, or natural resources.  A SoS conflict may be violent, but it need not be. 

Basis of Regionalism

Regionalism has roots across various bases.

1. Geographical Factor
2. Historical Factor
3. Cultural Factor
4. Economic Factor
5. Politico-administrative factor

1. Geographical Factor

• Usually people relate their regional identities to certain specific geographical boundaries. As an example, even after independence and the integration of Princely States with the Indian Union, the loyalties of citizens were torn between old territorial boundaries and new territorial structures.
• However, in the present day context, geographical factors are more closely tied to factors that determine economic growth and prosperity. Geographical factors contribute to resource-competition and relative deprivation amongst states. 
• For instance, owing to North East India facing problems of connectivity with the Indian mainland, its development remains sub-par. This brings in a sense of discontent amongst locals and negatively affects social solidarity. Consequently, North-East India has been a breeding ground for regional/Secessionist politics and dissent.
• Similarly, buffer-areas is another crucial geographical factor. For example, Bundelkhand belongs to UP and MP. Neither do any of these states want to give up control, nor do they want to take up the responsibility to develop it

2. Historical and Social Basis: Historical and social basis together are not only important individually but also in conjunction with each other. They have contributed to Regionalism in India in various ways:
3. History: History provides regionalist tendencies via some ideological bases through cultural heritage, folklore, myths and symbolism.

• For example, the demand for Dravida nadu was supported by the theory that the Dravidian speaking area once had non-Brahminical polity, which was destroyed by Aryan conquest and Brahminical hegemony. Also, the idea of Tamil nationalism was based on idealization of ancient Tamil history. Parties like the Dravida Kazhagam (DK) and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu and Shiv Sena in Maharashtra and Telugu Desham (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh gained credence.
• However,history isn’t the only main reason behind regionalism. Economic and political aspects have also contributed to regional feelings. An example of this change is the DMK, which moved from demanding independence to seeking autonomy within the country’s constitution.

2. Language: Language is arguably the most important mark of group identification. Through expression of shared life, thought structure and value patterns of people,language has the capacity to unite the people together towards achieving a common goal. 

• In this sense, linguistic homogeneity strengthens a positive movement. However,language can also contribute to impart divisive tendencies.
• Language is arguably the most important mark of group identification.
• Through expression of shared life, thought structure and value patterns of people, language has the capacity to unite the people together towards achieving a common goal. In this sense, linguistic homogeneity strengthens a positive movement.
• However, language can also contribute to impart divisive tendencies.Language found acceptance as a principle criterion for demarcating the territorial boundaries of provincial units. This was acknowledged in the Nagpur Congress session(1920). Post-independence, the State Reorganization Commission (SRC) 1955 was established and new states were formed in 1956. 
• Later on, new states were created by splitting up older states of Bombay (1960), Punjab (1966), and Assam (mid-sixties) into linguistically homogeneous states. Time and again, language emerges as a major bone of contention in Indian regional politics. 
• For instance, the demand for Gorkhaland in the North-East India, imposition of Hindi in the Southern States, etc.
• It must also be borne in mind that the importance of language must not be overstated.If language had been synonymous with region, the political aspiration of every linguistic group would have been satisfied by the formation of separate states. This, however, is neither a reality nor a foreseeable possibility. This is chiefly because of India’s immense linguistic diversity that makes it practically impossible.

3. Caste: Caste serves as an important factor underlying social differentiation in India. It is also a major reason behind providing impetus to linguistic regionalism.

• For instance, Tamil regionalism gained ground as a result of the Anti-Brahmin movement. Non-Brahmin castes of Tamil speaking region had been able to provide a powerful united thrust against Brahmins who had earlier enjoyed unquestioned dominance in economy, society and polity.

4. Religion: Religion might mix with other things like having more money or speaking the same language to encourage regional feelings.

• For example, the demand for Punjabi Suba had religious undertones even though it was presented under a linguistic garb. Similarly, secessionist movement in J&K also feeds off a sense of religious orthodoxy and economic deprivation

3. Economic Basis

•  In a developing country like India, resources are limited while the demand for resources for the development of various regions is disproportionate to resources. Economic policies have led to regional imbalances and wide economic disparities among various regions resulting in discontentment among them.
• Most of the demands for constituting new states were primarily based on allegedly unfair and unequal distribution of development benefits and expenditure in multi-lingual states.
• For example, movements for a separate Uttarakhand state in the hill districts of U.P.; creation of Jharkhand state out of parts of Bihar; demand for Bodoland comprising a part of Assam etc. The demand for separate states rests primarily on the sense of relative economic deprivation facing these regions.

4. Politico-Administrative Basis: 

• Politics, on its own, does not create regionalism. It only accentuates regionalism or takes advantage of already existing regional tendencies. Politicians convert regional disenchantment into movements for strengthening their individual and factional support bases. 
• For example, it is often argued that regional political parties like TDP (Andhra Pradesh), DMK (Tamil Nadu), Akali Dal (Punjab) are surviving by keeping regional sentiments alive.
• Other important facets of the politics of regionalism are the real or assumed charges of political discrimination among various regions by the central ruling elite. 
• Actually, the economic policies of the government have been such that it has aggravated the regional imbalances and economic disparities- It was due to the unequal distribution of developmental benefits that the demand for new states emerged.

Religious pluralism in India represents the coexistence of multiple religions, including Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, and others, within a shared social and cultural framework. India’s Constitution upholds secularism, guaranteeing freedom of religion and equality before the law for all citizens, irrespective of their religious beliefs. This secular foundation is rooted in the country’s ancient history, where traditions of tolerance and acceptance of diverse faiths have been integral to Indian society.

The concept of religious pluralism goes beyond mere tolerance; it actively respects and celebrates the multiplicity of religious practices and beliefs. Festivals like Diwali, Eid, Christmas, and Gurpurab are celebrated across the nation, with people from different communities often participating together. Additionally, landmark rulings by the Indian judiciary, such as the right to propagate religion under Article 25, reinforce the commitment to religious freedom.

However, religious pluralism in India also faces challenges, with occasional communal tensions and debates over religious identity. Despite these issues, India’s religious pluralism continues to thrive, reflecting a complex yet resilient fabric of unity in diversity. The enduring nature of this pluralism contributes significantly to India’s identity as a democratic, secular nation that respects and promotes religious inclusivity.

Marriage is a link between the family of orientation and the family of pro­creation. This fact of individual membership in two nuclear families gives rise to kinship system. Kinship is defined as “a social relationship based upon family relatedness”. The relationship which may be consanguineal (based on blood) or affinal (based on marriage), de­termines the rights and obligations of related persons. As such, kinship system is referred to as “a structured system of statuses and roles and of relationship in which the kin (primary, secondary, tertiary and distant) ire bound to one-another by complex interlocking ties”.

Part of the reciprocal behaviour, characterising every relationship between kin, consists of the terms by which each addresses the other, i.e., by personal name or by kinship term (pitaji, dadaji, bahenji) or by the combination of personal and kinship terras (Ram’s father, Rita’s mother, etc.). The kinship terms (of address and reference) which could be elementary (which cannot be re­duced to any other term, e.g., mata, pita, kaka, chacha, bhai, bahen, mousa, etc.) or derivative (which is compounded from an elementary term, e.g., bahnoi, mausa, etc.) or descriptive (which combines two or more elementary terms, e.g., mauseri bahen, phuphera bhai, etc.) are differentiated as isolative (applied only to one kin as defined by generation, sex and genealogical connection, e.g., bhai, bahen, pati, patni, etc.) or classificatory terms (ap­plied to persons of two or more kinship categories (e.g., cousin, used for father’s brother’s son as well as mother’s sister’s son). Since the classifica­tory terms ignore one or more fundamental criteria (e.g., sex, age, generation, affinity, collaterality, bifurcation, etc.) they reduce the num­ber of kinship categories from thousands to a very modest number.

After family, kinship group plays a very crucial role in daily life, ritu­als and social ceremonies of Hindus. People turn to their kin not only for help in exigencies of life but also on regular occasions. The important kin­ship groups, after the family, are vansh (lineage) and gotra (clan). Vansh is a consanguineous unilateral descent group whose members trace them services from a known and real common ancestor. It may be either patrilineal or matrilineal and is an exogamous unit.

The members of a vansh are treated as brothers and sisters. Lineage ties remain up to few generations only. The main linkage among the families of a lineage common participation in ritual functions like birth, death etc. The vansh passes into gotra which though is a unilateral kin group but is larger than the lineage. It is an exogamous group. The feminal kin (related through mother) are as important in an indi­vidual’s life as patrilineal kin (related through father).

Features of Kinship in Different Zones

Northern Zone

The kinship features in North and Central India differ from those in South India. The socio-cultural correlates of kinship system are language, caste and (plain and hilly) region. In spite of the effect of these three factors on the kinship relations, it is possible to talk of kinship organisation on some collective bases, e.g., on caste and zonal basis. Though kinship behaviour in the northern zone changes slightly from region to region and within each region from caste to caste, yet comparative study showy hat it is possible to talk of an ‘ideal’ northern pattern referring to practices and attitudes generally found to be common among a majority of the castes.

Referring to the kinship organisation of the northern zone, Irawati Xarve has given some important features. Some of these are:

1. Kin junior to ego are addressed by their personal names and senior to ego by the kinship term.
2. All children in ascending and descending genera­tions are equated with one’s own sibling group (brothers and sisters) and all children of one’s sibling group are again equated with one’s own chil­dren.
3. The principle of unity of generations is observed (for example, great-grandfather and grandfather are given same respect as father).
4. Within the same generation, the older and the younger kin are kept dis­tinct.
5. The duties and behaviour patterns of the members of three generations are strictly regulated.
6. Some of the ancient kinship terms having Sanskrit origin have been replaced by new terms; for example, pitamaha is replaced by pita. Suffix ‘ji’ is added to kinship terms used for kin older than the speaker (for example, chachaji, tauji, etc.) In Bengal, in­stead of ‘ji’ suffix ‘moshai’ is added.
7. Marriage among close kin is not permitted.
8. After marriage, a girl is not expected to be free with her parents-in-law, but when she becomes a mother, she achieves position of respect and power and restrictions on her are lessened.
9. The family is so structured that children, parents and grand-parents either live together or social kinship obligations towards them are clearly met.
10. Apart from the joint family which represents a person’s intimate and nearest circle of relations, there is always a larger circle of kin who play a part in his life. This kindred represents the circle of his life. This kindred represents the circle of his patri-kin or matri-kin who may stand by him and help him when the immediate family no longer suffices.

Central Zone

The salient features of kinship organisation of the Central India are not much different from those of the North India.

The important features of kinship in Central India are:

1. Every region follows northern India prac­tices of marriage, that is, consanguinity is the main consideration which rules marriage.
2. Many castes are divided into exogamous clans. Among some castes, the exogamous clans are arranged in hypergamous hierarchy.
3. The kinship terminology shows intimacy and closeness between vari­ous kin. The relations between kin are governed by the custom of ‘neota- gifts’ according to which cash-gift is given equivalent to cash-gift received. The neota-registeis are maintained and preserved for generations.
4. In Gujarat, mamera-type of cousin marriage (with mother’s brother) and levirate (marriage with husband’s brother) are practised by some castes.
5. The custom of periodic marriages in Gujarat has led to child marriages as well as unequal marriages. Such marriages are practised even today.
6. In Maharashtra, there is impact of both modern and southern zones in kinship relations. For example, the clan organisation of the Marathas is similar to that of the Rajputs which is arranged in a ladder manner. Clans are grouped into divisions and each division in named according to the number of clans it comprises; for example panch-kuli, sat-kuli, etc. The clans are arranged in hypergamous order, the highest being the panch- kuli, followed by the sat-kuli, etc. The panch-kuli can marry among themselves or can take a girl from the sat-kuli, etc. but do not give their daughters outside the panch-kuli.
7. Some castes like Marathas and Kun-bis in the central zone practice bride-price too, though dowry custom also exists among them.
8. Though the family system in Maharashtra is patril­ineal and patrilocal, yet unlike in the north, where a wife permanently stays with her husband after gauna and rarely goes to her father’s house, in castes like Marathas, she moves to and from her father’s house very fre­quently. Once she goes to her father’s house, it is difficult to get her back to her husband’s house. This shows the impact of the south on relations with kin.
9. Though the kinship terms are mostly northern yet some terms are borrowed from the Dravidians in the south; for example, use of the term anna and nana for brother along with the term dada. Similarly, use of term akka, tai and mai for sister.
10. The kinship system of the tribals in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh is somewhat different from that of the caste Hindus. The difference exists in terms of kinship terminol­ogy, marriage rules, inheritance system, and clan obligations. Thus, it may be stated that though the kinship organisation in the northern and central zones is almost similar, yet it can be described as a region of transition from the north to the south. A state like Maharashtra is a region of cultural borrowings and cultural synthesis.

Southern Zone

The southern zone presents a complicated pattern of kinship system. Though patrilineal and patrilocal family is the dominant family type for the greater number of castes and communities (for example, Namboodris), there are important sections of population which are matrilineal and matrilocal (for example, Nayars); also there are quite a few castes whose systems possess features of both patrilineal and matrilineal organi­sations (for example, Todas).

Similarly, there are some castes/tribes who practise only polygyny (for example, Asari, Nayars) and yet others, who practise both polygyny and polyandry (for example, Todas). Then there are polyandrous patrilineal groups (for example, Asari) and also polyandrous matrilineal groups (for example, Tiyan, Nayars) and polygynous patrilineal groups (for example, Namboodris) but no polygynous matri­lineal groups. Similarly, there are patrilineal joint families and also matriuneal joint families. All this shows varied patterns in kinship organi­sation in southern zone. Let us examine some of these organisations/ patterns.

In the matrilineal family, the kinship relationship of women to one another is that of a daughter, mother, sister, mother’s mother, mother’s sister, and sister’s daughter. In the kinship relationship of women with men, males are related to women as brother, son, daughter’s son, and sis­ter’s son. The kinship relationship of males to one another is that of brother, mother’s brother and sister’s son. All these kinship relations are based on blood. There are no relations by marriage. This is because hus­band visits the family occasionally.

We, therefore, find:

(i) Absence of companionship between husband and wife and absence of closeness be­tween father and children; and

(ii) There is complete independence of women as regards their livelihood; they do not partake of the earnings of their husband. This is how some southern families differ from the north­ern families.

Matrilineal joint family, called Tarwad, is found amongst the Nairs of Malabar in Travancore and a few other groups.

The important charac­teristics of Tarwad are:

1. The property of Tarwad is the property of all males and females belonging to it.
2. Unmarried sons belong to mother’s tarward but married sons belong to their wife’s Tarwad.
3. Manager of Tarwad property is oldest male member in the family called Karnavan (his wife is called Ammayi).
4. Karnavan is an absolute ruler in the fam­ily. On his death, the next senior male member becomes Karnavan. He can invest money in his own name, can mortgage property, can give money on loan, can give land as gift, and is not accountable to any mem­ber in respect of income and expenditure.
5. When Tarwad becomes too large and unwieldy, it is divided into Tavazhis. A Tavazhi in relation to a woman is ‘a group of persons consisting of a female, her children, and all her descendants in the female line’.

Tarwad before 1912 Act and after 1912 are two different things:

• Earlier, Tarwad property was indivisible, but now it can be divided,
• Earlier, Karnavan was an absolute ruler of Tarwad, but now his authority has become limited,
• Earlier, members of Tarwad were not entitled to maintenance unless they lived in the family house, but now members of Tarwad become entitled to maintenance outside the ancestral house,
• Earlier, ancestor worship of Karnavan was common, but now it is no longer common,
• Earlier, relations between husband and wife were formal, but now the relations have become informal and personal and more close and intimate,
• Earlier, the self-acquired property of a member of a Tar­ward went to Tarward after his death, but now it goes to his widow and children, and in their absence to mother and mother’s mother.

Thus, Tarwad of Nairs has now disintegrated after the enactments of 1912 Act (Travancore), 1920 Act (Cochin), 1933 Act (Madras), and 1958 Act (Kerala). Woman’s property now goes to her sons and daughters and then to her father and husband. Kapadia has drawn attention to the fact that more than 90 per cent of veedus (houses) have only one Tavazhi; this shows the extent of atomisation of Tarwads in the last few decades. Let us now analyse the clan organisation and marriage rules in the South. A caste is divided into five exogamous clans.

The important char­acteristics of clan organisation are

1. Each clan (composed of a number of families) possesses a name of some animal or a plant or some other object.
2. A person from one clan can seek a spouse from any other clan except his own. However, this choice is theoretical because of the rule of ex­change of daughters.
3. In marriage, there is not only the rule of clan exogamy but also of family exchange of daughters.
4. Because of the marriage rule of exchange of daughters, many kinship terms are common. For example, the term used for nanad (HuSi) is also used for bhabhi (BrWi); the term used for sda (WiBr) is also used for bahnoi (SiHu); the term used for sasur (HuFa) is also used for father (BrWiFa).
5. Marriage between maternal parallel cousins, that is, between children of two sisters, is not permissible.
6. Sororate marriage (that is, marriage with wife’s younger sister) is practised. Also, two sisters can marry two brothers in one family).
7. There is a system of preferential mating in the south. In a large num­ber of castes, the first preference is given to elder sister’s daughter, second preference to father’s sister’s daughter, and third preference to mother’s brother’s daughter. However, today cross-cousin marriage and especially the uncle-niece marriage is beginning to be considered as outmoded and a thing to be ashamed of among those groups which have come in contact with the northern Indians or with western cul­ture.
8. The taboos prescribed for marriage are: a man cannot marry his younger sister’s daughter; a widow cannot marry her husband’s elder or younger brother (that is, levirate is a toboo); and a man cannot marry his mother’s sister’s daughter.
9. Marriage is dependent on the chronological age differences rather than the principle of generational divisions as in the north. One ex­ample is that the marriage of grandfather and granddaughter is possible in south.
10. Yet, another feature of marriage and kinship in the south is that mar­riage is not arranged with a view to widening a kin group but each marriage strengthens already existing bonds and makes doubly near those people who were already very near km.
11. A girl has to marry a person who belongs to the groups older than her, that is, tarn-mum, and also to the group younger than her par­ents, that is, she can marry any of her older cross-cousins. A boy must marry in a tan-pm group and to one who is a child of a group of tam-mum.
12. The dichotomy of status and sentiments expressed in such northern terms like kanya (unmarried girl), bahu (married girl), pihar (mother’s house) and sasural (husband’s house) are absent in south. This is be­cause in south, a girl after marriage does not enter the house of strangers as in north. One’s husband is one’s mother’s brother’s son and so on. Marriage in the south, thus, does not symbolise separation from father’s house for a girl. A girl moves freely in her father-in- law’s house.

Comparison of Kinship System of North and South India:

1. In a southern family, there is no clear-cut distinction between the family of birth (that is, family of orientation) and family of marriage (that is, family of procreation) as found in the northern family. In the north, no member from Ego’s family of orientation (that is, of father, mother, brother and sister) can also become a member of his family of marriage; but this is possible in the south).
2. In the north, every kinship term clearly indicates whether the person referred to is a blood relation or an affinal kin but this is not so in the south.
3. In the south, an Ego (person under reference/study) has some kin who are his blood relatives only and others who are his blood rela­tives and affinal kin at the same time.
4. In the south, organisation of kin is arranged according to age catego­ries in the two groups, that is, older than Ego (tam-mum) and younger than Ego (tam-pin) (tarn is ‘self, nun is ‘before’ and pin is ‘after’).
5. In the south, kinship organisation is dependent on the chronological age differences while in the north, it is dependent on the principle of generational divisions.
6. No special norms of behaviour are evolved for married girls in the south whereas in the north, many restrictions are imposed on them.
7. Marriage does not symbolise woman’s separation from her father’s house in the south but in the north, a woman becomes a casual visi­tor to her parents’ family.
8. In the north, marriage is to widen the kinship group while in the south it is to strengthen already existing bonds.

Eastern Zone

In Eastern India, kinship organisation is different. There are more tribes than caste Hindus in eastern India (consisting of parts of Bengal, Bihar, Assam and Orissa). The more important tribes are: Khasi, Birhor, Hos, Mundas and Uraon. The kinship organisation here has no one pattern. People speaking Mundari languages have patrilineal patrilocal families. However, joint families are rare in this zone. Cross-cousin marriages are rarely practised though bride-price is common.

Woman is addressed as dual (you two), referred to as dual (she, the two and speaks as dual (1, two). Kinship terminology is borrowed both from Sanskrit and Dravidian languages. Khasis and Garos have matrilineal joint family sys­tem (like Nairs in the south). After marriage, a man rarely lives with his parents and establishes a separate house.

It may be concluded that the kinship organisation in India is influ­enced by caste and language. In this age of sharp competition for status and livelihood, a man and his family must have kin as allies. Caste and lin­guistic groups may help an individual from time to time but his most staunch, trustworthy and loyal supporters could only be his nearest kin.

It is, therefore, necessary that a person must not only strengthen his bonds with kin but should also try to enlarge his circle of kin. Cousin marriages, preferential mating, exchange rules and the marriage norms which circumvent the field of mate selection are now so changing that kinship relations through marriage are being extended and a person is able to get their help in seeking power and the status-lift that power can bring.

Dower is a provision accorded traditionally by a husband or his family, to a wife for her support should she become widowed. It was settled on the bride (being given into trust) by agreement at the time of the wedding, or as provided by law.

The dower grew out of the practice of bride price, which was given over to a bride’s family well in advance for arranging the marriage, but during the early Middle Ages, was given directly to the bride instead. However, in popular parlance, the term may be used for a life interest in property settled by a husband on his wife at any time, not just at the wedding. The verb to dower is sometimes used.

In popular usage, the term dower may be confused with:

• A dowager is a widow (who may receive her dower). The term is especially used of a noble or royal widow who no longer occupies the position she held during the marriage. For example, Queen Elizabeth was technically the dowager queen after the death of George VI (though she was referred to by the more informal title “queen mother”), and Princess Lilian was the Dowager Duchess of Halland in heraldic parlance. Such a dowager will receive the income from her dower property. (The term “Empress Dowager”, in Chinese history, has a different meaning.)
• Property brought to the marriage by the bride is called a dowry. But the word dower has been used since Chaucer (The Clerk’s Tale) in the sense of dowry, and is recognized as a definition of dower in the Oxford English Dictionary.
• Property made over to the bride’s family at the time of the wedding is a bride price. This property does not pass to the bride herself.

The bride received a right to certain property from the bridegroom or his family. It was intended to ensure her livelihood in widowhood, and it was to be kept separate and in the wife’s possession.

Dower is the gift given by the groom to the bride, customarily on the morning after the wedding, though all dowerings from the man to his fiancée, either during the betrothal period, or wedding, or afterwards, even as late as in the testamentary dowering, are understood as dowers if specifically intended for the maintenance of the widow.

Dower was a property arrangement for marriage first used in early medieval German cultures, and the Catholic Church drove its adoption into other countries, in order to improve the wife’s security by this additional benefit. The practice of dower was prevalent in those parts of Europe influenced by Germanic Scandinavian culture, such as Sweden, Germany, Normandy and successor states of the Langobardian kingdom.

The husband was legally prevented from using the wife’s dower — as contrasted with her dowry, which was brought to the marriage by the bride and used by both spouses. This often meant that the woman’s legal representative, usually a male relative, became guardian or executor of the dower, to ensure that it was not squandered.

Usually, the wife was free from kin limitations to use (and bequeath) her dower to whatever and whomever she pleased. It may have become the property of her next marriage, been given to an ecclesiastical institution, or been inherited by her children from other relationships than that from which she received it.

In English legal history, there were originally five kinds of dower:

1. Dower ad ostium ecclesiae, was the closest to modern meaning of dower. It was the property secured by law, in bride’s name at the church porch (where marriages used to take place). This was optional. Dower wasn’t the same as bride price; rather, it was legal assignment of movable or fixed property that became the bride’s property.
2. Dower de la plus belle was a hereditary conveyance of tenure by knight service. It was abolished in 1660, by the act which did away with old tenures.
3. Dower ex assensu patris, was the dower given to the bride by the father of the bridegroom. This became obsolete long before it was formally abolished (in the United Kingdom, for example, by the Dower Act 1834).
4. At common law, dower was of a very different nature. It was a legal declaration of a wife’s right to property, while the husband lived, which he would manage; which would transfer to the wife’s children when they were born; and which would secure her livelihood were she widowed. A dower at common law was not liable for the husband’s debts — which became controversial after many tried to use it to shield their property from the collection of debts. The Dower Acts of 19th century abolished this.
5. Dower by custom was an attempt to recognize the rules of dower customary at each manor and in each region. Customary dowers were also abolished in the 19th century, and replaced with uniform inheritance laws.