On the eve of Babur’s invasion of India in the early 16th century, the political and strategic condition of the Indian subcontinent was marked by significant instability and disunity. This fractured state of affairs provided an opportune environment for Babur, the ruler of Fergana and Kabul, to expand his ambitions into northern India.

Fragmented Political Landscape

India in the early 16th century was characterized by a lack of central authority and the proliferation of regional kingdoms. The once-mighty Delhi Sultanate, which had dominated northern India, had significantly weakened by this time. The Lodhi dynasty, which ruled Delhi, was plagued by internal dissension, weak leadership, and rebellious regional governors.

• Ibrahim Lodhi, the last Sultan of the Lodhi dynasty, was an unpopular and ineffective ruler. His attempts to centralize authority alienated the powerful Afghan nobles and regional chiefs. This discontent among his subordinates weakened the Sultanate and made it vulnerable to external threats.
• In Punjab, which lay on the direct route from Kabul to Delhi, the governor, Daulat Khan Lodhi, had revolted against Ibrahim Lodhi and invited Babur to invade India. This internal betrayal significantly undermined the Sultanate’s defensive capabilities.

Rise of Regional Powers

Apart from the Delhi Sultanate, northern and central India were dominated by several powerful regional kingdoms, which were often in conflict with each other:

• The Rajput Confederacy, under the leadership of Rana Sanga of Mewar, was a formidable force in western India. However, despite their military strength and extensive territories, the Rajputs were not unified under a single leader. Their internal rivalries and lack of cohesion made it difficult for them to present a united front against external threats.
• The Kingdom of Malwa, the Sultanate of Gujarat, and the Bahmani Sultanate (which had fractured into the Deccan Sultanates) further divided the power structure of central and western India. These states were preoccupied with their own territorial ambitions and rivalries.
• The Vijayanagara Empire, in southern India, remained a strong and independent Hindu kingdom. However, its geographical distance and focus on the southern and Deccan regions meant it played little role in countering northern invasions.

Military Weaknesses

The Indian rulers on the eve of Babur’s invasion lacked modern military techniques and organization. Their reliance on traditional methods of warfare, such as large but poorly coordinated armies, made them vulnerable to Babur’s superior military tactics and weaponry.

• Babur brought with him gunpowder weaponry, including cannons and muskets, which were relatively new to Indian warfare. Indian armies, by contrast, relied heavily on elephants and cavalry, which were less effective against gunpowder-based warfare.
• Babur’s forces were highly disciplined and better organized. His use of the Tulughma strategy, which involved the deployment of flanking cavalry and concentrated artillery fire, gave him a decisive edge in battles such as the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.

Strategic Factors

Babur’s invasion was also facilitated by his strategic acumen and the geographical conditions of northern India.

• The Khyber Pass, a critical entry point into India, provided Babur with a relatively accessible route for his army. His control of Kabul and his familiarity with the terrain enabled him to secure his supply lines and maintain the mobility of his forces.
• Babur’s ability to form alliances and exploit the disunity of his opponents was a key factor in his success. For instance, Daulat Khan Lodhi’s invitation and Rana Sanga’s initial support showed how local rulers often sought foreign intervention to settle their disputes.

Economic and Social Context

The political instability also had economic and social implications. The frequent wars between regional kingdoms and the weakening of the central authority disrupted trade and agriculture. This economic disarray further undermined the ability of Indian rulers to maintain large standing armies or invest in military modernization.

Socially, the divisions between the Hindu majority and the ruling Muslim elites, as well as caste-based hierarchies, created a fragmented society. These divisions limited the potential for widespread popular resistance to Babur’s invasion, as there was no unifying ideology or national consciousness to rally diverse communities against an external invader.

Conclusion

In summary, the political and strategic condition of India on the eve of Babur’s invasion was marked by fragmentation, internal strife, and outdated military practices. The weakened Delhi Sultanate, the rise of ambitious regional powers, and the lack of unity among the Rajputs and other Indian rulers created a fertile ground for foreign conquest. Babur’s military innovation, strategic vision, and ability to exploit the divisions within India enabled him to establish the foundations of the Mughal Empire, which would go on to dominate the subcontinent for centuries. His success was as much a result of his strengths as it was a reflection of the vulnerabilities of the Indian political landscape at the time.

The statement by Stanley Lane-Poole, “The Emperor Humayun tumbled through life and he tumbled out of it,” succinctly encapsulates the chaotic and tumultuous reign of Humayun, the second Mughal emperor of India. It is both a critique of his erratic rule and a reflection on his tragic personal fate. Lane-Poole’s observation can be analyzed in terms of Humayun’s personal characteristics, political challenges, and historical legacy, highlighting why his life and reign were marked by instability and unpredictability.

Humayun’s Early Challenges and Tumultuous Reign

Born in 1508, Humayun inherited the Mughal Empire in 1530 after the death of his father, Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty. At the time of his accession, the empire was still in its infancy, and its hold over northern India was precarious. The political environment was fractured by rival kingdoms, such as the Rajputs, the Afghans, and the growing power of the Sur Dynasty under Sher Shah Suri. Humayun lacked the military genius of his father, which was critical for consolidating the empire in such turbulent times.

From the beginning, Humayun’s reign was marked by disorganization and poor decision-making. While Babur had established a centralized system of governance, Humayun was unable to maintain that momentum. For instance, his strategy of dividing the empire among his brothers—Kamran, Askari, and Hindal—was a grave error that weakened his authority. His brothers acted as rivals rather than allies, often conspiring against him, which fragmented Mughal power and allowed their enemies to grow stronger.

Defeat and Exile

The most significant event that illustrates the “tumbling” nature of Humayun’s life was his defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri. Sher Shah, a capable and ambitious Afghan ruler, gradually eroded Humayun’s control over northern India. The decisive battle occurred at Chausa in 1539, where Humayun was soundly defeated. A year later, the Battle of Kanauj (1540) sealed his fate, forcing him into exile.

During his exile, Humayun’s life was characterized by constant wandering and struggle. He sought refuge in Persia, where he faced the humiliation of seeking aid from Shah Tahmasp of the Safavid dynasty. While in Persia, he adopted Shia customs to please the Shah, further complicating his position among Sunni Muslims back in India. Despite this indignity, his time in Persia provided him with the resources and military support needed to reclaim his throne, albeit years later.

Return and Short-lived Success

Humayun’s return to power in 1555, after Sher Shah Suri’s death and the decline of the Sur dynasty, seemed to promise stability. However, this success was short-lived, as he died within a year of reclaiming the throne. His death in 1556 was as dramatic and tragic as his life. While descending a staircase in his library, he slipped, fell, and suffered fatal injuries. This incident underscored the randomness and fragility that characterized his entire existence.

Analysis of Lane-Poole’s Statement

Lane-Poole’s description of Humayun as “tumbling through life” aptly reflects his inconsistent leadership, marked by both ambition and failure. Humayun’s reign lacked the decisiveness and vision of his father, Babur, and his son, Akbar. His political miscalculations, such as dividing his empire and underestimating rivals, led to repeated defeats and a prolonged period of instability for the Mughal dynasty.

The phrase “tumbled out of it” poignantly describes the sudden and almost absurd nature of his death, which was emblematic of his chaotic life. Humayun’s death not only deprived the empire of its ruler but also emphasized the vulnerability of the Mughals during this period.

Historical Legacy

Despite his shortcomings, Humayun played a critical role in the continuity of the Mughal dynasty. His most enduring legacy was his son, Akbar, who would go on to become one of India’s greatest emperors. The foundation that Humayun laid, even through his failures, provided valuable lessons for his successors. His experiences with exile and his exposure to Persian culture influenced the Mughal court, which under Akbar and his descendants, became a synthesis of Indo-Persian traditions.

In architectural terms, Humayun’s tomb, commissioned by his widow Haji Begum, became a prototype for Mughal architecture, culminating in structures like the Taj Mahal. Thus, while his life was marred by “tumbles,” his legacy persisted in more enduring and significant ways.

Conclusion

Lane-Poole’s characterization of Humayun captures the essence of his life—a series of setbacks, struggles, and fleeting triumphs. His reign was an interlude of instability and learning, which ultimately paved the way for the glory of the Mughal Empire under Akbar. While he lacked the qualities of a great ruler, his perseverance in the face of repeated failures and his eventual reclamation of the throne exemplify a complex and multifaceted historical figure. His life remains a testament to the precarious nature of power and the resilience required to endure it.

Humayun’s early life

As the story goes, Humayun fell ill and his father Babur prayed for his recovery and transfer his illness to him. His prayer was granted. Humayun recovered, Babur fell ill and died soon.

After the death of his father, Humayun ascended the throne of Delhi. Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Humayun who is popularly known as Humayun was the eldest son of Babur. Kamran, Askari and Hindal were his step brothers. He learnt Turki, Arabic and Persian. He worked as governor of a province in Kabul.

He took part in the battles of Panipat and Khanwa. He looked after the administration of Hissar, Firuza and Sambhal. He was nominated by Babur as his successor. Humayun is probably the only king in the history of India whose rule included two spells, one from 1530-40 and the other in 1555-56 after his fifteen years’ exile from India. Humayun, literally meaning ‘fortunate’ but through most part of his life, he remained ‘unfortunate’. He is again the only king who on the advice of his father treated his half-brothers in real brotherly affection but without any reciprocal response from them rather betrayal from one.

Early difficulties faced by Humayun and Babur’s Legacy

The throne inherited by Humayun was full of thorns. He had to face several difficulties right from his accession. Among the major factors which contributed to his difficulties and problems were the legacy of Babur’s will, the unfriendly treatment of his brothers and relatives and lastly, the hostile attitude of the Afghans and the Rajput’s.

Babur had entered the country as a stranger and spoiler. He had defeated the armies and broken the power of the reigning dynasty i.e. the Lodis. The only hold which he and the Mughals had upon the people of India was military force. Babur had not created a strong administrative machinery to control such a vast empire.

1. Division of empire according to Babur’s will:

Humayun very faithfully implemented the will of his father. He treated all his young step brothers very kindly. He made Kamran the ruler of Kabul and Kandhar, Askari, the ruler of Rohilkhand and Hindal, the ruler of Mewat (comprising the modern territories of Alwar, Mathura and Gurgaon). Thus his sphere of influence and power was reduced. This division weakened the unity of the empire.

2. Ungratefulness and incompetency of Humayun’s brothers:

Kamran, after taking Kabul and Kandhar, took Punjab forcibly. Hindal too declared himself emperor. Askari lost some part of the area allotted to him. All these actions had an adverse effect on Humayun.

3. Hostile attitude of Humayun’s own relatives:

Mutual conspiracies and jealousies of Humayun’s relatives created several problems for him. Muhammad Jama Mirza, a powerful noble and the husband of Humayun’s sister, Muhammad Mehdi Khwaja, Babur’s brother-in law, and Muhammad Sultan Mirza, Humayun’s cousin were quite powerful and ambitious. They created several problems for him.

4. Lack of suitable administrative machinery:

Babur spent almost his time in wars and could not take suitable steps to organize the administration of the territories he conquered.

5. Want of a well-integrated and unified army:

The Mughal army was a heterogeneous body of several races—Chaghatais, Uzbeks, Mughals, Persian, Afghans and Hindustanis, etc. Such an army could be kept under control and disciplined only under the leadership of a capable, dashing and inspiring commander like Babur. Humayun was too weak for this purpose.

6. Babur’s Distribution of Jagirs:

Babur’s nobles and soldiers had rendered great assistance to him in his conquests. Therefore, in order to please them Babur gave them Jagirs liberally, In due course these nobles became very powerful and they posed a great threat to the stability of the Mughal empire.

7. Paucity of funds:

After getting enormous wealth from the royal treasuries of Delhi and Ajmer, Babur distributed it so lavishly among his soldiers and nobles that very little were left for Humayun to conduct the affairs of his administration.

8. Hostility of the Afghans:

The Afghans who were ruling Delhi a few years back still had ambition to capture power again. Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, was also an Afghan. He was also ambitious of the throne of Delhi. But the most important and powerful Afghan, who later drove away Humayun, was Sher Shah.

9. Belied Rajput’s hopes:

Though the power of the Rajput’s had been weakened by Babur, yet they cherished some hopes of recovering their lost power and territories.

Humayun’s own responsibility for most of his Difficulties:

As a ruler he lacked foresight and was incapable of taking a long term view of political and military problems. He was not a good judge of men and circumstances. He lacked sustained effort and after a victory he would fritter away his energy in revelry.

No doubt, he inherited a rich-legacy of difficulties but he made it richer by his own blunders. His lethargy was chronic. Though beset with dangers and better enemies all around, he did not develop the ‘Killer’s instinct’. He was daring as a soldier but not cautious as a general. He failed to pounce upon opportunities as well as upon his enemies in time. In the words of Lane-poole, “Humayun’s greatest enemy was he himself.”

1. Weak personality:

Humayun lacked resolution and sustained energy, foresight and quick grasp of situation. “He revelled at the table when he ought to have been in the saddle”. He was slow to understand men, slow to grasp golden opportunities, slow to decide, slow to win a battle. As observed by Lane-poole, “He lacked character and resolution. He was incapable of sustained efforts after a moment of triumph and would busy himself in his ‘harem’ and dream away the precious hour in the opium eaters’ paradise while his enemies were thundering at his gate.

2. Underestimating Sher Shah’s strength:

He failed to estimate the growing power of Sher Shah Suri. He should not have accepted the half­hearted submission of Sher Shah at chunar. In fact he should have nipped him in the bud.

3. Negative response to Rajput’s’ request:

He should have given a positive response to the request of the Rajput’s and attacked Bahadur Shah of Gujarat at Chittor and should have completely crushed his power.

4. Lack of military strategies:

Humayun did not attack his strong opponents at the appropriate time. Instead of rushing to Chittor to attack Bahadur Shah, he wasted time in festivities at Mandu. Likewise, instead of punishing the rebels in Bihar, he spent several months on his way in besieging minor places. All this gave time to his adversaries to make adequate preparations and to consolidate their positions.

5. Defensive attitude:

After his defeat at Chausa, he always remained on the defensive. He did not attempt to recapture the territory.

6. Wrong choice of site:

In the battle of Kanauj, he made blunders in choosing a low land for encampment and for remaining inactive before the enemy for two months.

7. Leniency to his enemies:

He pardoned again and again those who revolted against him. This he did not only in the case of Kamran but also in the case of Mohammad Zaman Mirza.

8. Sher Shah – more capable:

It must be admitted that he was no match for Sher Khan who was in every respect superior to him in preparing and planning battles and in fighting the enemy. Sher Shah had more experience, more knowledge of strategies, more organizing capacity. He never missed an opportunity and could use wily tricks and crafty means to conquer the enemy while Humayun could not do anything, which did not beloved a king as well as gentleman, and refined person.

Success at the end

It is not doing justice to Humayun when it is said that he was a failure. True he failed against Sher Shah but after his death, he seized every opportunity to come to power. But his spirit was not subdued. Even after 15 years of exile he could recapture his throne of Delhi and restore the power and prestige of the Mughals. “He went from riches to rags and again from rags to riches.”

In his personal life, Humayun was an obedient son, lovable husband, affectionate father and a good relative. He was generous and attached in temperament, cultured and fond of learning. He was the lover of humanity and the model of a gentleman.

Humayun possessed a dominant will. Dr. S. Roy has rightly commented, “With all his weaknesses and failings, Humayun has a significant place in Indian history which is not, perhaps, always duly appreciated. The well- timed restoration of the Mughal power was a real achievement which paved the way, for the splendid imperialism of Akbar.”

After ruling for ten years, he was forced to spend 15 years out of India. When he was able to recover Delhi, he could hardly enjoy the fruits of his victory, as within six months, he fell down from the stairs of his library in Delhi fort and died.

• The fifteenth century was the age of change and empire building in Central and West Asia. From the ruins of Mongol and Timurid empires, three great empires were in the making again.
  
  • In the north of Trans-Oxiana (present Uzbekistan) were the Uzbeks,
  • in the West it was the Safavid dynasty in Iran and
  • Ottoman Turks in present day Turkey.
• Remarkably, Babur laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent. Babur was the founder of the Mughal empire which was established in 1526 after Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat.
  
  • Thus a new epoch and a new empire in India began, lasting for nearly three centuries beginning from 1526 to 1857.
  • Six major rulers of this dynasty, Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, known as the “Great Mughals”, left their mark on Indian history.
  • The empire declined after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.

Babur

• Babur was a descendent of the Mongol Emperor Genghis Khan and Timur, thus a Timurid Prince. Zahir-ud-din Muhammad, known as “Babur” or “Lion,” was born on February 14, 1483, into the Timurid royal dynasty in Andijan, now in Uzbekistan.
  
  • Babur’s father, Umar Sheikh Mirza, was the Emir of Ferghana, and his mother, Qutlaq Nigar Khanum, was the daughter of Moghuli King Yunus Khan.
  • The last Mongol forebears intermarried with Turkic and Persian people and became assimilated into local culture by the time Babur was born. They had converted to Islam after being greatly influenced by Persia. The majority favoured the mystic Sufi-infused style of Sunni Islam.
• In 1494, the Emir of Ferghana died unexpectedly, and 11-year-old Babur ascended to the throne of Ferghana, a small state in Trans-Oxiana.
• To expand his kingdom, he made several attempts to acquire Samarqand, which had great prestige in the entire Islamic World, from his uncle.
• However, this infighting among the Timurid Princes, ultimately led to the Uzbek Chief, Shaibani Khan overrunning their kingdoms. This forced Babur to move towards Kabul which he conquered in 1504.
• When the Herat province was also overrun by Shaibani Khan, it led to a direct conflict between the Uzbeks and the Safavids as both coveted the Khorasan area (Herat and the surrounding area).
  
  • In a famous battle in 1510, Shah Ismail, the Shah of Iran, defeated and killed Shaibani Khan. This enabled Babur to become ruler of Samarqand with Iranian help.
  • However soon, the Uzbeks recovered from their defeat and retook Samarqand thus forcing Babur to return to Kabul.
• Finally, Shah Ismail himself was defeated by the Ottoman Sultan in 1514, thus leaving the Uzbeks as the masters of Trans-Oxiana. These developments forced Babur to look towards India.

Conquest of India

• Babur’s conquest of India was influenced by the following factors:
  
  • Lure of wealth and resources of India:
    
    • Like countless other invaders from Central Asia, Babur was drawn to India by the lure of fabulous wealth and resources.
      
      • Since early childhood, Babur had heard stories of the ransacking and plunder of Delhi by his ancestor Timur during the reign of Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq in 1398.
      • After the Delhi massacre, Timur had carried away a vast treasure and many skilful artisans who helped him to consolidate his Asian Empire and beautify his capital.
    • He also annexed some areas in Punjab. When Babur conquered Afghanistan, he felt that he had a legitimate right to these richly endowed areas of Punjab.
  • Meagre resources of Kabul and the ever-present Uzbek threat:
    
    • Kabul yielded a meagre income as it was not resource-rich like Punjab. With these meagre resources in areas that he ruled (Badakhshan, Qandhar and Kabul), Babur could not provide well for his begs (noblemen) and kinsmen. Moreover, the Uzbek threat was always present on Kabul.
    • So Babur considered India to be a good place of refuge with immense wealth and thus, a suitable base for operations against the Uzbeks.
  • Chaotic political situation in North India:
    
    • The political situation in northwest India was suitable for Babur’s entry into India as it was chaotic.
    • In the beginning of the sixteenth century, India was a confederacy of a number of small independent states which could easily fall prey to any strong and determined invader.
    • After the death of Sikandar Lodi in 1517, Ibrahim Lodi succeeded him. Ibrahim Lodi’s plan to create a strong, centralised empire had alarmed the Afghan chiefs and the Rajputs. The chief among them were Daulat Khan Lodi, who was governor of Punjab and Rana Sanga, the chief of Rajput confederacy.
      
      • At various times, they sent embassies to Babur to invite him to India and suggested that he should displace Ibrahim Lodi since he was a tyrant.
      • Finally, in 1525, after multiple attempts, Babur became the master of Punjab.

Battles

• Beginning with the Battle of Panipat in 1526, Babur had fought a couple of battles, which paved the way for establishment of Mughal Empire in India.

First Battle of Panipat (1526)

• In Panipat, near Delhi, a war took place between Babur and the ruler of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi. Babur was a master strategist and battle hardened. He used gun powder in artillery to his great advantage. He strengthened his position by resting one wing of his army in the houses of the city of Panipat and protected the other by means of a ditch filled with branches of trees and a defending wall.
• He created a device called as Ottoman (Rumi) device which was a combination of defence and attack positions. Moreover, Babur had two Ottoman master-gunners, Ustad Ali and Mustafa, in his ranks to operate the artillery attacks.
• At the same time, Ibrahim Lodi was unaware about Babur’s war strategy and his strongly defended position.
• After a week of war, the two extreme wings of Babur’s army attacked Ibrahim’s forces from the side and rear. Babur’s gunners used their guns with good effect from the front. Lodi was caught in between and was attacked from all sides by Babur. Babur gives a huge credit to his bowmen for the victory.
• The battle of Panipat is regarded as one of the decisive battles of Indian history. Its real importance lies in the fact that it opened a new phase in the struggle of domination of North India.
• It broke the back of Lodi power, and brought under Babur’s control the entire area upto Delhi and Agra. The treasures stored by Ibrahim Lodi at Agra relieved Babur from his financial difficulties.

Battle of Khanwa (1527)

• It was a battle in which the Mughal Emperor Babur defeated a confederacy of Rajputs and Afghans which was headed by Rana Sanga of Mewar.
• Babur’s decision to stay in India invited the hostility of Rana Sanga who began his preparations for a showdown with Babur. Rana Sanga had domination over Eastern Rajasthan, Malwa. Thus the establishment of an empire in the Indo-Gangetic Valley by Babur was a threat to Rana Sagha. At the same time, Babur accused him of breach of agreement. He says that Sanga had invited him to India and promised to join him against Ibrahim Lodi, but made no such move.
• It is not known what precise promises Rana Sanga had made. However, Babur’s decision to stay on in India completely changed the situation.
• Rana Sanga received widespread support. Almost all Rajput rulers sent contingents to serve under him. Many Afghans, including Mahmud Lodi, a younger brother of Ibrahim Lodi, Hasan Khan Mewati, the Ruler of Mewat etc. rallied to him. The reputation of Rana Sanga and his early success against some of the outlying Mughal posts such as Bayana, further demoralised the war – weary soldiers of Babur.
• To inspire them and rally them together, Babur solemnly declared the war against Sanga to be a Jihad. On the eve of the battle, he emptied all the wine jars and broke the wine flasks to demonstrate what a staunch Muslim he was. He banned the trade in wine and abolished custom taxes on Muslims.
• The battle of Khanwa was fiercely contested and was an example of astute military strategy. Babur carefully selected a site and entrenched himself at Khanwa, near Agra. Like in battle of Panipat, Babur greatly strengthened his position by combination of defence and offence. He lashed together a number of wagons as an outer bastion and dug a trench in front for double protection. Gaps were left in the defences for his musketeers to fire and advance behind wheeled tripods. The masterful usage of cavalry, artillery and flank attacks by Babur hemmed the Rana Sanga forces and they were defeated after a great slaughter.
• Rana Sanga escaped and wanted to renew the conflict with Babur but he was poisoned by his own nobles. Thus, died most valiant warriors produced by Rajasthan. With his death, the dream of a united Rajasthan upto Agra also suffered a serious setback.
• It was a decisive victory of the first Mughal Emperor Babur and it consolidated Mughal power in India. It affirmed Babur’s superior generalship and organizational skills and exposed the outdated warfare strategy and technology of India. The cannon and gun powder artillery of Babur played a critical role in his victory.
• The victory secured Babur’s position in the Delhi-Agra region and led to expansion of Mughal Empire in the north East and central India.

Battle of Chanderi (1528)

• After the battle of Khanwa, the power of Rajputs was only crippled but not crushed. To further consolidate the gains and strengthen his position, Babur conquered a chain of forts-Gwalior and Dholpur towards east of Agra. He also annexed large part of Alwar from Hasan Khan Mewati.
• On receiving news that Rana Sanga had renewed war preparations to renew the conflict with him, Babur decided to isolate Rana by inflicting a military defeat on one of his staunchest allies Medini Rai of Chanderi in Malwa.
• Chanderi was a stronghold of Rajputs. The Rajputs decided to fight till the end and it was captured after the Rajput defenders had died fighting to the last man and their women burnt themselves by performing Jauhar.
• After the battle of Chanderi, Babur’s authority was not challenged by the Rajputs.

Battle of Ghaghra (1529)

• It was fought between the forces of Babur and the Eastern Afghan Confederates under Sultan Mahmud Lodi and Sultanate of Bengal under Sultan Nusrat Shah. Although the Afghans had been defeated, they had not been reconciled to the Mughal Rule, especially in Eastern UP. They had ousted the Mughal officials in Eastern UP and had reached up to Kannauj. The Afghan Sardars were being backed by Nusrat Shah, the ruler of Bengal, who had married a daughter of Ibrahim Lodi. However, they lacked a popular leader. After some time, Mahmud Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi, who had fought against Babur at Khanwa, reached Bihar. The Afghans hailed him as their leader and mustered strong support under him.
• This was a threat which Babur could not ignore. After crossing the Ganga near Banaras, he faced the combined forces of the Afghans and Nusrat Shah of Bengal at the crossing of the river of Ghaghra. Although Babur crossed the river and compelled the combined forces of Bengal and Afghan armies to retreat, he could not win a decisive victory. Being ill and anxious about the situation of Central Asia, Babur decided to patch up an agreement with the Afghan Chiefs. He also patched up a treaty with Nusrat Shah of Bengal. The Battle of Ghaghra was important to the extent that it finished the challenge of last of the Lodis.

Challenges Faced by Babur in India

• Many of his begs (Nobles) were not prepared for a long campaign in India. They longed for their kinsmen and the cool climate of Central Asia in this strange and hostile land.
  With the onset of the hot weather, their misgivings had further increased. However, Babur knew that the resources in India alone would enable him to build a strong empire and satisfy his begs.
  
  • Thus, he proclaimed his intention to stay on in India, and granted leave to a number of begs who wanted to return to Kabul.
• He also faced remarkable hostility from the common citizenry who had bitter memories of genocide of Timur. Moreover, he had to continuously wage battles to lay foundation of his nascent kingdom.

Significance of Babur’s Advent

• Political Reorganisation:
  
  • His expedition led to the establishment of an all India empire. In north India, Babur smashed the power of the Lodis and the Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga, thus destroying the balance of power. This was a step in the direction of the establishment of an all-India empire.
• Security from External invasions from North West:
  
  • Babur and his successors were able to give to India security from external invasions for almost 200 years. It was for the first time since the downfall of Kushan empire, that Kabul and Kandhar became integral parts of an empire comprising north India, hence staging of attacks from North West could be prevented.
• Trade and Commerce:
  
  • India could take a greater share in the great trans-Asian trade. The control of Kabul and Kandhar strengthened India’s foreign trade since these two towns were the starting points for caravans meant for China in the east, and the Mediterranean seaports in the west.
• Military Strategy and Modern Warfare technology:
  
  • Babur showed to the Indian Chiefs and soldiers a new method of warfare. Through his ‘Tulugma‘ strategy, Babur started the system of dividing the army into sections in the battlefield and keeping some army in reserve. Gradually, horses took the place of elephants in the battlefields.
  • Before Babur’s advent, gun-powder was not widely used in wars in India. However, after the First Battle of Panipat, machinegun and gun-powder came to be used widely in India. He introduced new mode of warfare and showed what a skilled combination of artillery and cavalry could achieve. His victories led to rapid popularisation of costly gunpower and artillery in India. Since, artillery and gun powders were expensive, it favoured rulers with large resources thus introducing an era of large kingdoms.
• Foundations of Secular State in Medieval India:
  
  • Babur was the first Muslim ruler of India to do away with the practice of owing allegiance to the Caliph, the Head of the Islamic World. It enhanced the prestige of the crown. It was Babur who declared himself to be ‘Padshah’. He thus severed all his connections from the Khalifa and made himself independent of all theocratic influence both in principle and practice.
  • In this way we can say that Babur was the first Muslim ruler who thought of laying the foundations of a secular state in Medieval India. He endeared himself to his begs and army by his personal qualities also. Babur was not bigoted or led by the religious divines. He declared the war against Rana Sanga as jihad for political reasons and not on religious grounds.
• Culture:
  
  • He was deeply learned in Persian and Arabic, and is regarded as one of the two most famous writers in the Turkish language. His autobiography, Tuzuki-Baburi is regarded as one of the classics of world literature.
  • He was in touch with famous poets and artists of his time and was a naturalist. He set up many gardens with running water and thus established a trend.
  • He was deeply inspired by Persian Culture. Thus, Babur introduced a new concept of State which was to be based on the strength and prestige of the Crown, absence of religious and sectarian bigotry and the careful fostering of culture and the fine arts. Hence, he provided a precedent and a direction to his successors.

Babur’s Succession and End of Life

• Babur Mughal Empire became unwell in the autumn of 1530. His brother-in-law plotted with certain Mughal court nobility to usurp the throne following Babur’s death, bypassing Humayun, Babur’s eldest son and designated heir.
• Humayun rushed to Agra to defend his claim to the throne, but he soon became severely ill. According to mythology, Babur begged God to spare Humayun’s life in exchange for his own.
• After Babur’s death at the age of 47 on December 26, 1530, Humayun inherited a shaky empire besieged by internal and external adversaries.
• Humayun, like his father, would fall from power and be thrown into exile, only to return and lay his claim to India. By the end of his life, he had established and enlarged the empire, which would reach its pinnacle under his son Akbar.

Conclusion

• Although Babur’s Mughal Empire governed India for barely four years, his love of nature inspired him to design gardens of great beauty that remained an integral component of every Mughal fort, palace, and imperial structure in the decades that followed.
• In the Battle of Ghagra in 1529 AD, Babur defeated the Afghans from Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa, and other states, who had established a formidable alliance with Mahmud Lodi. It temporarily crippled anti-Babur measures, allowing the young Mughal dynasty to survive.
• The Mughal Empire grew from Kabul in the west to Ghagra in the east, from the Himalayas in the north to Gwalior in the south, thanks to Babur’s conquests.
  
  • The fifteenth century was the age of change and empire building in Central and West Asia. From the ruins of Mongol and Timurid empires, three great empires were in the making again.
    
    • In the north of Trans-Oxiana (present Uzbekistan) were the Uzbeks,
    • in the West it was the Safavid dynasty in Iran and
    • Ottoman Turks in present day Turkey.
  • Remarkably, Babur laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent. Babur was the founder of the Mughal empire which was established in 1526 after Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat.
    
    • Thus a new epoch and a new empire in India began, lasting for nearly three centuries beginning from 1526 to 1857.
    • Six major rulers of this dynasty, Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, known as the “Great Mughals”, left their mark on Indian history.
    • The empire declined after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.
   

Babur (1483-1530) whose original name was Zahir-ud-Din Mohammad, came to be known by his pet name ‘Babur’ – a Turkish word which means a tiger. He belonged to Farghana, a small Kingdom in Central Asia.

From 1519 to 1524, he led four expeditions to India but without any significant results. His fifth invasion which marked his success completely changed the political history of India. It had far-reaching consequences.

The battle of Panipat made him virtually the ruler of entire India.

Vulnerable Political condition of India on the Eve of Babur’s Invasion:

A struggle for political supremacy among several warring powers in India was going on. Babur who had an ambition to rule India fully realized this condition and decided to try his luck. Situation is described here in brief.

Delhi:

Ibrahim Lodi, the ruler of Delhi, lacked power and political diplomacy. He had created many enemies. He was not on friendly terms with several Afghan and Turk nobles. Rana Sanga of Mewar was his sworn enemy.

Punjab:

Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab distrusted Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. To settle scores with him, he invited Babur from Kabul to invade India.

Sind:

The province of Sind had become independent of the rule of the Delhi Sultanate. There was a good deal of confusion and lawlessness in the state.

Kashmir:

Towards the end of the fifteenth century, there began a stage of anarchy in Kashmir.

Mewar:

Sangram Singh, popularly known as Rana Sanga, was the ruler of Mewar. He aspired to capture the throne of Delhi and Agra. He is said to have invited Babur to invade India. He was perhaps under the delusion that Babur like his ancestor Timur would invade, loot and go back to Kabul.

Chief reasons that led Babur to invade India

These may be listed as under:

1. Chaotic political condition of India.
2. Temptation to acquire enormous wealth of India.
3. Legal claim on account of Timur’s invasion on India — Babur a descendant of Timur.
4. Insufficient income from Kabul — Babur’s earlier possessions.
5. Fear of Babur regarding Uzbek’s attack on his empire of Kabul.
6. Babur’s ambition of capturing territories.
7. Invitation from some Indian nobles and rulers to attack India.

First Battle of Panipat (April 21, 1526 A.D.):

After conquering Punjab, Babur proceeded towards Delhi and met the army of Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat — now a town in Haryana, 85 Kilometers north-west of Delhi. Babur, in his ‘Memoirs’ mentions that with a small army of 12000 picked horsemen he defeated Ibrahim’s army of about one lakh soldiers. Whatever be the statistical details, all historians agree that Ibrahim’s army was far greater in numerical strength.

For about a week, both the armies faced each other and engaged in skirmishes before the real battle started on the morning of April 21, 1526 and by noon it was over. Ibrahim Lodi’s army was destroyed and he died in the battle field along with his 15000 soldiers. (Estimates vary). Pleased at his victory Babur wrote, “By the grace and mercy of Almighty God, this difficult affair was made easy to me and that mighty army, in the space of half a day was laid to dust.”

Causes of Babur’s Success and Ibrahim’s Failure:

1. Absence of any strong power in India:

As Dr. Ishwari Prasad has put it, “In the beginning of the sixteenth century, India was a confederacy of a number of small independent states which could easily fall prey to any strong and determined invader.”

2. Babur’s efficient artillery:

According to Rush brook Williams, “If it could be possible to emphasize anyone of the factors as being the most important cause of his (Babur’s) victory, one would surely have to assign the first place to his artillery”.

3. Inefficiency of Ibrahim as a military commander:

Babur himself has observed, “Ibrahim was an inexperienced Youngman, careless in his movements who marched without order, halted or retired without plan and engaged in the battle without foresight”.

4. Tulghuna method of warfare-formation of the army in the battle field:

Babur took the position in the centre between the left and right wings. On the right and left extremities of the entire front line were two flying columns to wheel round on the enemy and attack them on the sides or at the rear. Along the front of the entire line, were placed the artillery on the right side and the musketeers on the left.

The Afghan army came straight rapidly marching, but as they came near the Babur’s frontline, they hesitated and halted, but their soldiers behind pressed on creating a little confusion. Babur did not let go this opportunity and his flying columns wheeled round, reached at the back and delivered a violent attack at the rear while the right and left wings started charging the enemies at the front.

At this very time, the artillery from the right and musketeers from the left started the attack. The centre of Ibrahim’s army became helpless under the attack and the rest of the army was surrounded on all sides by the rains of bullets and arrows.

5. Babur’s well-trained and disciplined army:

There is no doubt that Ibrahim’s army lacked proper training and discipline. His army was a mixed crowd of soldiers.

6. Horses versus elephants:

Babur’s war horses were more swift in action as compared with the war elephants of Ibrahim.

7. Disunity among Indian rulers:

Babur had not to face a united army of Indian rulers. He defeated them one by one and captured their kingdoms.

8. Unpopularity of Ibrahim Lodi:

Ibrahim’s treatment with his Amirs (nobles) was most discourteous and insulting and they wanted to get rid of him.

9. Babur’s personality:

Babur was determined to capture Delhi. He was indefatigable and had enormous capacity to inspire his soldiers. Babur’s warm personality generated loyalty of his army.

Far-reaching effects of Babur’s Victory at Panipat:

1. Foundation of a new dynasty:

The victory of Babur laid down the foundation of the Mughal dynasty that lasted for more than two hundred and fifty years in India.

2. Fatal blow to the Afghan rule:

In the words of Stanley Lane-Poole the biographer of Babur, “The battle of Panipat became a tomb for the Afghans of Delhi. Their state was destroyed and their strength was absolutely crippled.”

3. End of the Lodi rule:

The battle of Panipat was decisive. Ibrahim Lodi was killed in the battle field along with 15000 soldiers. With his death the Lodi rule came to an end.

4. Wide use of artillery:

After the battle of Panipat, the use of artillery became current in India.

5. Capturing enormous wealth:

According to Lane-Poole (1899), Babur gathered such booty as surpassed all dreams.

6. Fulfilment of Babur’s ambition:

Babur’s long desire of conquering India and getting its wealth was fulfilled.

7. Enhancing Babur’s dignity:

The battle of Panipat proved that Babur was a great military commander.

8. End of Babur’s bad days:

According to Rush brook Williams, “After being successful in this battle, the bad days of Babur came to an end. Now he had not to bother about his personal safety or throne”.

• Sher Shah re-established the Afghan Empire which had been taken over by Babur. Sher Shah Suri, also known as Sher Khan, was the Emperor of India from 1540 to 1545.
• He established the Sur dynasty by dethroning Humayun, the Mughal emperor. The Sur Empire may be considered in many ways as the continuation and culmination of the Delhi Sultanate.

Sher Shah Suri

• Sher Shah Suri, whose original name was Farid was the founder of the Suri dynasty.
• He became the administrator of his father’s jagir which prospered by his efforts. He had extensive administrative experience and was a feared warrior.
• The title of Sher Khan was given to him by his patron for killing a tiger (sher), or for the services rendered.
• In spite of not being born with a silver spoon in mouth, he was a real soldier and a rose to the position of ruler of Hindustan.

Polity

• Sher Shah defeated the combined forces of the Lohani chiefs of Bihar and Mohamud Shah of Bengal at Surajgarh. With this victory, whole of Bihar came under Sher Shah.
• He also plundered Bengal several times and by capturing Gaur, the capital of Bengal, forced Mohammad Shah to seek refugee with Humayun.

Encounters: Humayun and Sher Shah

• Humayun and Sher Shah had three major encounters:
  
  • Encounter on the fort of Chunar in 1538 and Sher Shah’s diplomatic surrender .
  • Battle of Chausa with Humayun in 1539 and Sher Shah’s victory.
  • Battle of Kannauj in 1540 and Sher Shah’s decisive victory over Humayun.
• With the victory at Kannauj, Sher Shah became the ruler of Delhi, Agra, Sambhal and Gwalior etc., also came under his sway. This victory ended the rule of the Mughal dynasty for 15 years.
• In the West, he conquered Malwa, and almost the entire Rajasthan. Sher Shah was able to bring under his control a substantial part of India. The frontiers of his empire extended on the one hand from Punjab to Malwa and on the other from Bengal to Sind.
• With large areas under his control, he was able to provide a sort of uniformity to the administrative system of India.

Administration

• Sher Shah Suri established a sound and strong administrative system. His reign lasted only for five years, but even within this brief period, he evolved a system of administration which remained substantially unchanged till the advent of the British in India.
  
  • Sher Shah Suri was assisted by important ministers:
    
    • Diwan –i- Wizarat, also called as Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance.
    • Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
    • Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister.
    • Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications.
  • Akbar’s system of government was fundamentally based on that of Sher Shah.
• Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars. Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. A number of sarkars were clubbed into provinces.
  
  • Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the two officers in charge of the administration in each sarkar.
  • Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue), Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.
• The Paragana was under the charge of the shiqdar, who maintained law and order and general administration.
• The Munsif or Amil looked after the collection of land revenue. Above the Pargana was the Shiq or Sarkar under the charge of the Siqdar-i-shiqdaran and a Munsif-i-Munsifan.
• He took special care for organizing the revenue administration of his kingdom. Land was surveyed on a uniform system with each holding being separately measured. The lands were divided into good, bad and middling. The assessment was liberal but the collections were strict, as one-third of the gross produce of land was taken as revenue. People could pay the taxes directly either in kind or cash.
• He took special care to protect the interest of the peasants. The rights of the peasants were duly recognized and the liabilities of each were clearly defined in the kabuliyat (deed of agreement), which the State took from him, and the patta (title-deed), which it gave him in return. It minimised the scope for confusion and oppression.
• The military administration was also efficiently reorganized and Sher Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding (dagh) of horses with imperial signs from Alauddin Khalji. Each soldier had his descriptive roll (chehra) recorded.
• Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign.

Religion

• Sher Shah was the first, among the Muslim rulers to recognize the fact that India was the land of the Hindus and the Muslims alike and he tried his best to reconcile the two elements as far as possible.
  
  • He extended equal treatment to all sections of his subjects irrespective of the faith they professed.
• Some of the most responsible officials, civil and military, were recruited from among the Hindus. He administered justice with strict impartiality and kept effective vigilance on the conduct of the judicial officers.
• Sher Shah did not, however, initiate any new liberal policies. Jizya continued to be collected from the Hindus, while his nobility was drawn almost exclusively from the Afghans.

Economy

• He introduced a reformed system of currency and struck fine coins of gold, silver and copper of uniform standard in place of the debased coins of mixed metals. His silver coin was known as Rupiya and copper coin was known as Daam.
• His silver rupee remained a standard coin for centuries after him. He is credited with the introduction of custom duty. He also considerably improved the means of communication.
• He restored the famous Grand Trunk Road running from Bengal to Punjab, and planted trees and established resting places (Sarai) along the roads to facilitate movement of the troops and to give boost to trade and commerce.
  
  • He extended the Grand Trunk Road from Chittagong in the frontiers of the province of Bengal in northeast India to Kabul in Afghanistan in the far northwest of the country.
  • Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four important highway They were:
    
    1. Sonargaon to Sind
    2. Agra to Burhampur
    3. Jodhpur to Chittor and
    4. Lahore to Multan.
• He also linked places like Chittor to the seaports of Gujarat.
• Moreover, he ensured law and order with very severe penalty for harming the traders and directed his governors to treat merchants and travellers well in every way.
• Also, Sher Shah introduced a system of horse-posts or mail service carried by the horses and was very solicitous for the welfare of the peasantry.

Art and Architecture

• He built many inns, mosques and laid down the network of roads the most famous among them being the Grand Trunk Road. He also built an entire city near Delhi on the banks of Yamuna.
• He also had a refined taste in architecture. It is evident in the Rohtas Fort built by him. Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna and Qila-i-Kuhna mosque at Purana Qila, Delhi were his other great contributions.
• His mausoleum is considered a masterpiece of Indo-lslamic architecture and is famous as Sher Shah Suri Tomb situated in Sasaram, Bihar.

Importance of Dynasty

• Sher Shah ruled for five years only and even within this brief period he had left the traces of administrative talents permanently impressed. Had he lived longer, he would have founded a stable Afghan Empire and the Empire of the Mughals would not perhaps have come into existence in India. Of all the rulers of medieval India, he was undoubtedly the greatest.
• He was an able general, consummate soldier, and a determined ruler. His reforms were well calculated to secure the interests of the people. So great was his personality that his greatest enemy, Humayun, on his death referred to him as ‘Ustad-I-Badshahan’, teacher of kings.
• The changes made by him were adopted by Akbar and his successors as the basis of their government. After the fall of the Mughals, the English East India Company also retained the same administrative machinery more or less intact.
• It is clear that the genius of Sher Shah continued to affect the destiny of India for centuries.

Reasons for Decline

• The last campaign of Sher Shah Suri was against Kalinjar where he was injured during an accidental gun powder blast and died.
• Sher Shah’s state system revolved around his personality, it was extremely top heavy. The level of institutionalization of administration was very low. As a result of this, the Sur Empire collapsed within 10 years of Sher Shah’s death. He was succeeded by his second son, Islam Shah, who ruled till 1553.
• Islam Shah was a capable ruler and general but most of his energies were occupied with the rebellions raised by his brothers and with tribal feuds among the Afghans. His death at a young age led to a civil war among his successors.
• Sher Shah’s successors were thoroughly incompetent and unfit to carry on his work of reconstruction. Instead of trying to secure the support of all the sections of society, they created dissensions and group-rivalries. There was no national solidarity among the Afghans. Rivalries and jealousies ruined the Afghans.
• The successors of Sher Shah ignored the lot of the peasantry. There was no proper collection of revenues. The examples of Sher Shah were forgotten. Also, they did not bother to give justice to the people.
• This provided Humayun the opportunity he had been seeking for recovering his empire in India. In two hotly contested battles in 1555, he defeated the Afghans and recovered Delhi and Agra.