The customs, traditions, attitudes, values, norms, ideas and symbols govern human behaviour pattern.

The members of society not only endorse them but also mould their behaviour accordingly. They are the members of the society because of the traditions and customs which are common and which are passed down from generation to generation through the process of socialisation. These common patterns designate culture and it is in terms of culture that we are able to understand the specific behaviour pattern of human beings in their social relations. Cultural ideas emerge from shared social life.

Meaning of Culture

Sometimes an individual is described as “a highly cultured person”, meaning thereby that the person in question has certain features such as his speech, manner, and taste for literature, music or painting which distinguish him from others. Culture, in this sense, refers to certain personal characteristics of a individual. However, this is not the sense in which the word culture is used and understood in social sciences.

Sometimes culture is used in popular discourse to refer to a celebration or an evening of entertainment, as when one speaks of a ‘cultural show’. In this sense, culture is identified with aesthetics or the fine arts such as dance, music or drama. This is also different from the technical meaning of the word culture.

Culture is used in a special sense in anthropology and sociology. It refers to the sum of human beings’ life ways, their behaviour, beliefs, feelings, thought; it connotes everything that is acquired by them as social beings.

Culture has been defined in number of ways. There is no consensus among sociologists and anthropologists regarding the definition of culture. One of the most comprehensive definitions of the term culture was provided by the British anthropologist Edward Tylor. He defined culture as ” that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.

There are some writers who add to this definitions some of the important” other capabilities and habits” such as language and the techniques for making and using tools. Culture consists of all learned, normative behaviour patterns – that is all shared ways or patterns of thinking and feeling as well as doing.

Some of the thinkers include in culture only the nonmaterial parts. For instance, Sutherland and Wood word say, “If culture exists only where there is communication then the content of culture can be ideas or symbol patterns. Culture is then an immaterial phenomenon only, a matter of thoughts and meanings and habits and not of visible and touchable material things or objects”.

The “material elements that are made and used in accordance with socially inherited tradition” should be called culture objects. Others include in culture all the major social components that bind men together in society. For instance, the British anthropologist Malinowski included ‘inherited, artifacts, implements and consumer goods’ and ‘social structure’ within his definition of culture.

It is, Cooley, Argell and Car say,

“The entire accumulation of artificial objects, conditions, tools, techniques, ideas, symbols and behaviour patterns peculiar to a group of people, possessing a certain consistency of its own, and capable of transmission from one generation to another.”

Some of the other important definitions of culture are as follows. “Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and our thinking. Intercourse in our literature, in religion, in recreation and enjoyment, says Maclver.

According to E.A. Hoebel,

“Culture is the sum total of integrated learned behaviour patterns which are characteristics of the members of a society and which are therefore not the result of biological inheritance.”

“Culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and have as members of society”, says Bierstedt. “Culture is the total content of the physio-social, bio-social and psycho-social universe man has produced and the socially created mechanisms through which these social product operate”, According to Anderson and Parker.

Mlinowlski defines culture” as the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.

According to H.T. Mazumadar,

“culture is the sum total of human achievements, material as well as non-material, capable of transmission, sociologically, i.e., by tradition and communication, vertically as well as horizontally”.

Combining several of these definitions, we may define culture as the sum-total of human achievements or the total heritage of man which can be transmitted to men by communication and tradition. It is a way of life of the people in a certain geographical area. Life style and social pattern of a society being the direct consequence of the accumulated heritage of ages past distinguish and differentiate one community from another.

Culture therefore, is moral, intellectual and spiritual discipline for advancement, in accordance with the norms and values based on accumulated heritage. It is imbibing and making ours own, the life style and social pattern of the group one belongs to. Culture is a system of learned behaviour shared by and transmitted among the members of the group.

Culture is a collective heritage learned by individuals and passed from one generation to another. The individual receives culture as part of social heritage and in turn, may reshape the culture and introduce changes which then become part of the heritage of succeeding generations.

In the Later Vedic Period, the Aryans pushed further east. The Satapatha Brahmana describes Aryan spread to the eastern Gangetic plains. The Aryans fully subjugated the rich plains nourished by the Yamuna, Ganges, and Sadanira rivers during the Later Vedic Age. They migrated through the Vindhyas and settled in the Deccan, north of Godavari.

Later Vedic Age (1000 BC – 600BC)

• In the Later Vedic Period, the Aryans went even further east. The Satapatha Brahmana alludes to the spread of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains.
• Several tribal groupings and kingdoms are referenced in later Vedic literature. The expansion of big kingdoms was a significant development during this time period.
• In the beginning, the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms prospered. Kuru’s prominent rulers were Parikshat and Janamejaya.
• Pravahana Jaivali was a well-liked Panchalas ruler.
• He was a supporter of education. Following the collapse of the Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms such as Kosala, Kasi, and Videha rose to prominence. Kasi’s most notable ruler was Ajatasatru.
• Janaka ruled Videha, which had its capital at Mithila. Yajnavalkya, a scholar, ornamented his court.
• The easternmost tribal kingdoms appear to be Magadha, Anga, and Vanga.
• Later Vedic scriptures also allude to India’s three divisions: Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (middle India), and Dakshinapatha (east India) (southern India).
• During this time, two further collections were composed: the Yajur Veda Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita.
• The hymns in the Yajur Veda are accompanied with rites that represent the society’s sociopolitical framework.
• The Atharva Veda contains charms and spells meant to stave against evil. They mirrored the non-Aryan ideas and customs.
• The Samhitas were followed by the Brahmanas, a collection of literature that discussed the social and religious components of rites.

Iron Culture

• Iron became popular about 1000 BC and was discovered within tombs in Pakistan and Baluchistan.
• From circa 800 BC, iron was utilised to produce weapons such as arrowheads and spearheads in Uttar Pradesh.
• Later Vedic literature employs the names ‘Syama’ or ‘Krishna ayas’ to refer to iron.
• Although agriculture was basic, it was widespread, and rice and wheat became more common in the later Vedic period.
• The introduction of metals resulted in the growth of several arts and crafts.
• Smelters, iron and copper smiths, and carpenters all emerged as occupations.
• In the later Vedic period, there were four varieties of pottery: black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware, and red ware.

Political Organisation

• During the later Vedic era, larger kingdoms arose.
• In the later Vedic period, many jana or tribes merged to form janapadas or rashtras.
• As a result, the royal power grew in tandem with the kingdom’s expansion. To bolster his status, the king undertook several ceremonies and sacrifices.
• Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice), and Vajpeya (chariot race) are among them.
• The rulers were also given titles such as Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi (Lord of the Earth), Ekrat, and Samrat (sole ruler).
• In the later Vedic period, in addition to the existing purohita, senani, and gramani, a great number of additional officials were active in administration.
• The treasury officer, tax collector, and royal messenger are among them. The village assemblies were in charge of governance at the lowest levels.
• During the later Vedic period, the Samiti and Sabha’s influence waned.

Economic Condition

• Iron was widely used during this time period, allowing humans to remove forests and cultivate additional land.
• Agriculture was the primary employment. For farming, improved cultivating equipment was utilised.
• In addition to barley, rice and wheat were farmed. Another benefit was knowledge of manure.
• Industrial activity became more diverse, and specialisation increased. Metalwork, leatherwork, woodwork, and ceramics all advanced significantly.
• Foreign trade expanded in addition to domestic trade.
• The Later Vedic people were seafaring and traded with places like Babylon. A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) emerged.
• Vaisyas was also a trader and merchant. They banded together to form ganas, or guilds.
• Aside from the Rig Vedic nishka, gold and silver coins such as satamana and krishnala were utilised as mediums of commerce.

Social Life

• During the Later Vedic period, the four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras), or the Varna system, were completely established.
• The Brahmin and Kshatriya castes had benefits that the Vaisya and Shudra classes did not.
• A Brahmin had a greater standing than a Kshatriya, yet Kshatriyas often claimed superiority over Brahmins.
• During this time, many sub-castes based on employment emerged.
• During the Later Vedic period, the father’s authority in the family grew. There was no progress in women’s status.
• They were still regarded as inferior and subservient to males.
• Women’s political rights to attend assemblies were likewise revoked. Child marriages were becoming more widespread.
• A daughter, according to the Aitareya Brahmana, is a cause of unhappiness. Women in the royal household, on the other hand, had significant advantages.

Religion

• Early Vedic gods such as Indra and Agni lost their significance.
• During the Later Vedic era, Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector), and Rudra (the destroyer) rose to prominence.
• Sacrifices remained significant, and the rites associated with them grew more intricate.
• Prayers became less important as sacrifices became more important. Priesthood became a profession, and it became hereditary.
• The priestly elite created and elaborated on sacrificial formulas.
• As a result, at the conclusion of this time, there was a significant pushback against priestly rule as well as sacrifices and rites.
• These elaborate sacrifices were directly responsible for the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism.
• Furthermore, the writers of the Upanishads, the heart of Hindu philosophy, rejected needless rituals in favour of pure knowledge (jnana) for serenity and salvation.

Conclusion

The Aryans advanced eastward throughout the Later Vedic Period. According to the Satapatha Brahmana, Aryans moved to the eastern Gangetic plains. The Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished at first. Parikshat and Janamejaya were two important Kuru monarchs. The Aryans fully controlled the rich plains nourished by rivers such as the Yamuna, Ganges, and Sadanira during the Later Vedic Age (1000-600 B.C.).

Harappan civilisation was a Bronze Age culture which has been known to the world for its urbanism. Very special for its planned cities, drainage system and use of kiln bricks for making massive structures.

This was the largest civilisation in geographical extent during its own period. Till now thousands of sites have been discovered. Majority of sites are situated in India.

According to recent discoveries, it has been found that the largest concentration of the Harappan settlement was in the valley of river Saraswati and its tributary Drisadvati. Another significant aspect of this culture was its well developed cottage industry and craftsmanship which had made it one of the richest civilisations of the ancient world. A number of cities excavated from coastal region have great significance in terms of maritime trade.

Lothal, situated in modern Gujarat was a port city where an artificial dockyard was made. Dholavira, Balakot, Alhadino, Sutkakoh and Sutkagendor were other important port cities which had a very important role in contemporary trade. From Lothal, Persian Gulf type seals were also found.

A number of Indian beads and seals have been discovered from the Mesopotamian cites which are evidences of reciprocal trade.

Many of the Indus cities have provided us a great number of seals. These seals were insignia of ownership. These seals are also evidence of well developed trade economy. Seals are also symbolic expression of their religious belief. These are the best examples of Harappan craftsmanship.

Chanhudaro, situated in Sindh, was a city famous for bead-making. Carnelian, lapis-lasuli, etc. were used for making beads which were important items for export. From cities like Balathal, Kalibangan, Mohanjodaro also we have got evidence of cottage industries.

As far as technological development during Indus period is concerned, the use of Flemish bond and English bond method was a great achievement of this period. Lost-wax-technique was used for making bronze implements and statues.

Masonic art was also well developed. Image of the priest from Mohanjodaro and nude figure of dancing from Harappa have been found. Technical homogeneity and conceptual uniformity in production was a very important aspect of Harappan made of production. Homogeneity in production reveals the very fact that during this period there has evolved a centralized system of decision making also.

It seems that around 2500 B.C. Harappan civilization reached its apex. But after 2000 B.C. use of seals, script, standardized weights and measures, kiln bricks were abandoned. In cities small and shoddy dwellings were made even on roads and the concept of planned city had become a subject of bygone era.

These were some very serious signs of deterioration. Cities like Mohanjodaro and Harappa also saw a gradual decline in urban planning and construction of houses. The search for the causes of the decline of the Harappan civilization has moved in two directions (i) that some natural calamity led to the collapse and that there was barbarian invasion.

Wheeler believed that the Indus civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders. However, it has been pointed out that Mohanjodaro was abandoned by about 1800 B.C. While Aryans invaded India in 1500 B.C.

Writers like Faisserus have tried to explain the decay of the Harappan civilization in terms of ecological problems. Perhaps over grazing and over exploitation of forest resources caused the virtual decline. But the enduring fertility of soil of this area disproves this hypothesis. Tectonic eruption has been suggested as another reason responsible for the decay. Regular flood changes in the course of rivers and over ciltation by rivers in the Arabean Sea are some of the other views related with the decline.

Latest study of Post-Harappan settlement at Kalibangan, Kunal, Kumtari, Rakigarhi, Dholavira, Desalpur and Rangpur made it very clear that great traditions vanished but little traditions continued. So there was not a virtual decline but a transformation in economy which had become once again a rural one.

Indian culture, one of the world’s oldest and most vibrant, is a living testament to the principle of “Unity in Diversity.” This concept, deeply rooted in India’s ancient history, has shaped the nation’s social, cultural, and political fabric. The ability of diverse traditions, religions, languages, and ethnicities to coexist harmoniously has been a hallmark of Indian civilization.

Origins of Unity in Diversity in Ancient India

The seeds of India’s cultural unity were sown in its ancient past, where a shared worldview emerged despite regional and societal differences. One of the earliest expressions of this unity is found in the Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE), which displayed a uniformity in urban planning, trade practices, and religious symbolism across vast regions, from Mohenjo-Daro in present-day Pakistan to Lothal in Gujarat. This shared cultural foundation persisted even after the decline of the Indus cities.

The Vedic period (1500–600 BCE) further reinforced cultural unity through common religious texts, rituals, and philosophical ideas. The Vedas, Upanishads, and epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata became the bedrock of a shared Indian identity, transcending regional and linguistic barriers. The Sanskrit language, the liturgical and scholarly medium of the time, served as a unifying force that linked diverse communities, creating a common intellectual and spiritual heritage.

Religious Pluralism in Ancient India

Religious diversity has been a defining feature of Indian culture, yet ancient India excelled in fostering tolerance and synthesis. The emergence of Buddhism and Jainism (6th century BCE) alongside Vedic Hinduism is a prime example of this coexistence. While Buddhism and Jainism critiqued certain Vedic practices, such as animal sacrifice, they borrowed and adapted philosophical concepts like karma, dharma, and moksha from the Vedic tradition.

King Ashoka the Great (268–232 BCE), a Mauryan emperor, exemplified this synthesis. After converting to Buddhism, Ashoka promoted religious tolerance through his edicts, which advocated respect for all sects and emphasized values like nonviolence and compassion. His rock and pillar inscriptions are evidence of his vision of unity, as they were written in multiple scripts and languages to reach diverse populations.

Cultural Syncretism and Artistic Unity

Indian art, architecture, and literature reflect the interplay of regional styles and pan-Indian themes. The stupas, chaityas, and viharas built during the Mauryan and Gupta periods show how Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain traditions often influenced one another. For instance, the Ajanta and Ellora caves (2nd century BCE to 6th century CE) house both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples, showcasing the mutual respect and artistic collaboration between these traditions.

The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century CE), often regarded as a “Golden Age” of Indian culture, epitomized cultural unity amidst diversity. While the Guptas were patrons of Hinduism, they also supported Buddhism and Jainism. Sanskrit literature, including Kalidasa’s works and legal texts like the Manusmriti, flourished during this period and contributed to a shared cultural ethos.

Linguistic and Literary Diversity

Ancient India was home to a plethora of languages, including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, and Tamil. Despite this linguistic diversity, there was a remarkable degree of cultural exchange. For instance, Sanskrit texts were translated into regional languages, and Tamil Sangam literature incorporated ideas from Sanskritic traditions. The coexistence of multiple languages enriched Indian culture, making it inclusive and adaptable.

Social Structure and Integration

While the varna system (social order) is often critiqued for its rigidity, it also facilitated a certain degree of social integration in ancient India. The system allowed for specialization of labor and the coexistence of various occupational groups. Over time, the flexibility of caste identities, particularly in the early periods, enabled diverse communities to find their place within the larger social framework.

Trade and Economic Unity

India’s vast trade networks in ancient times also contributed to its cultural unity. The Silk Road, maritime trade routes, and regional markets connected people across the subcontinent and beyond. Trade facilitated the exchange of ideas, goods, and technologies, such as the spread of Indian numerals and the decimal system. Economic interdependence thus reinforced the sense of belonging to a shared cultural and geographical space.

Philosophical and Spiritual Unity

Ancient Indian philosophy emphasized universal values like dharma (righteousness), ahimsa (nonviolence), and satya (truth). These principles were not confined to any one religious tradition but were embraced by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism alike. Texts like the Bhagavad Gita and the Dhammapada reflect a shared ethical framework that transcended sectarian boundaries. The concept of a cyclical worldview—with its emphasis on rebirth and liberation—further united diverse philosophical schools.

Enduring Legacy and Contemporary Relevance

The principle of unity in diversity has remained central to Indian culture, as it was deeply ingrained in its ancient foundations. The ability to accommodate differences without erasing them allowed India to develop a pluralistic society that valued coexistence. This legacy is evident even today in India’s linguistic federalism, religious pluralism, and the coexistence of traditional and modern lifestyles.

Conclusion

Unity in diversity is not merely a slogan in the Indian context; it is an enduring reality deeply rooted in its ancient history. From the shared rituals of the Vedic period to the architectural marvels of the Mauryan and Gupta eras, and the philosophical pluralism of Indian thought, ancient India demonstrated how diversity could coexist within a unified cultural framework. This unique characteristic continues to define India, making it a model for harmonious coexistence in an increasingly interconnected yet divided world.

Ancient Indian culture, one of the oldest and most profound civilizations in the world, has been shaped by millennia of philosophical inquiry, artistic expression, social organization, and spiritual exploration. Its distinctive features reflect the integration of diverse influences, both indigenous and external, and a continuous quest for knowledge and self-realization. The culture of ancient India, as recorded in its literature, art, religion, and societal norms, offers a rich tapestry that has influenced not only the subcontinent but also large parts of Asia and beyond.

Deep Spirituality and Religious Pluralism

One of the most defining characteristics of ancient Indian culture is its profound spiritual orientation. Religion and spirituality were not confined to individual worship or dogma but were deeply embedded in all aspects of life. Ancient Indian texts, such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita, reflect an intense engagement with existential questions about the nature of the self, the universe, and ultimate reality.

The early Vedic period (1500–600 BCE) was characterized by rituals and sacrifices aimed at maintaining cosmic order (rta). Over time, philosophical inquiry gained prominence, as seen in the Upanishads, which emphasized concepts like Brahman (universal consciousness) and Atman (individual soul). These ideas laid the groundwork for later schools of thought in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

The emergence of Buddhism and Jainism in the 6th century BCE added to the diversity of religious traditions. While they critiqued certain Vedic practices, these religions shared core ethical principles such as ahimsa (nonviolence) and emphasized liberation from the cycle of birth and death. This pluralistic religious landscape fostered a culture of tolerance and coexistence, which became a hallmark of Indian civilization.

Philosophical Inquiry and Intellectual Tradition

Ancient Indian culture is renowned for its intellectual depth and philosophical diversity. The development of six classical schools of Hindu philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta—illustrates the systematic pursuit of knowledge and the examination of metaphysical and epistemological questions.

Additionally, Buddhism contributed significantly to Indian philosophy, particularly through the Madhyamaka and Yogacara schools, which explored the nature of reality and consciousness. Jain philosophy, with its emphasis on anekantavada (the multiplicity of perspectives), underscored the complexity of truth and the necessity of intellectual humility.

This intellectual ferment was not limited to metaphysics. Ancient Indian scholars made remarkable advances in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and linguistics. The concept of zero and the decimal system originated in India, and texts like Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata and Sushruta Samhita bear testimony to the advanced state of knowledge in these fields.

Rich Literary Heritage

The literary achievements of ancient India are unparalleled in both scope and diversity. Sanskrit, the dominant language of the time, was used to compose some of the world’s greatest literary and religious texts. The Vedas and Upanishads are the cornerstones of Indian spirituality and philosophy, while the Mahabharata and Ramayana are epic narratives that combine myth, history, and moral philosophy.

Classical Sanskrit literature flourished with works like Kalidasa’s Shakuntala and Meghaduta, showcasing the aesthetic sophistication of ancient Indian culture. Tamil Sangam literature, produced between 300 BCE and 300 CE, is another significant contribution, offering insights into the social, economic, and political life of ancient southern India.

Ancient Indian texts were not limited to religious or poetic themes; they also included treatises on statecraft (Arthashastra by Kautilya), grammar (Ashtadhyayi by Panini), and performing arts (Natya Shastra by Bharata). This breadth of literary expression reflects the holistic and multifaceted nature of Indian culture.

Art and Architecture

The artistic achievements of ancient India are characterized by a blend of aesthetic beauty, religious symbolism, and technical mastery. From the Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE) to the Gupta period (4th–6th century CE), Indian art evolved to reflect both local and pan-Indian influences.

The stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut, the rock-cut caves of Ajanta and Ellora, and the temples of Mahabalipuram exemplify India’s architectural genius. These structures were not only places of worship but also centers of artistic and cultural expression.

Sculpture and painting were integral to ancient Indian art. The Buddhist Gandhara and Mathura schools of art represent distinct styles, with Gandhara reflecting Greco-Roman influences and Mathura emphasizing indigenous traditions. The murals at Ajanta, depicting scenes from the Jataka tales, highlight the narrative and spiritual dimensions of Indian art.

Social Organization and the Varna System

The social structure of ancient India was shaped by the varna system, which divided society into four main categories: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (traders and agriculturists), and Shudras (laborers and service providers). While this system initially allowed for flexibility and mobility, over time it became rigid and gave rise to the caste system.

Despite its limitations, the varna system also facilitated the specialization of labor and contributed to the economic and cultural diversity of ancient Indian society. The role of women, though subject to restrictions, was significant in various spheres, as evidenced by the achievements of figures like Gargi and Maitreyi, who were prominent scholars during the Vedic period.

Scientific and Technological Advances

Ancient India made significant contributions to science and technology. The Sulbasutras contain some of the earliest references to geometric principles, while the Aryabhatiya introduced advanced astronomical concepts. Medicine was highly developed, with the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita offering comprehensive treatises on surgery, anatomy, and pharmacology.

The ancient Indians were also skilled in metallurgy, as seen in the Iron Pillar of Delhi, which has resisted corrosion for over a millennium. Such achievements underscore the practical and innovative spirit of ancient Indian culture.

Cultural Syncretism and Adaptability

One of the most remarkable characteristics of ancient Indian culture is its openness to external influences and its ability to synthesize diverse traditions. The interaction between Indian and Hellenistic cultures following Alexander’s invasion led to the development of the Gandhara school of art. Similarly, the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia, China, and Southeast Asia facilitated cultural exchanges that enriched Indian civilization.

Ancient Indian culture was also marked by its adaptability. While rooted in tradition, it continually evolved to accommodate new ideas and practices, ensuring its relevance across different historical epochs.

Conclusion

Ancient Indian culture is a testament to the enduring values of spirituality, intellectual inquiry, artistic excellence, and social harmony. Its emphasis on pluralism, tolerance, and adaptability enabled it to thrive for millennia and leave a lasting impact on the world. By fostering a holistic worldview that integrated the material and the spiritual, the individual and the collective, ancient Indian culture laid the foundation for one of the richest civilizations in human history. Its legacy continues to inspire and guide humanity in the pursuit of knowledge, harmony, and self-realization.

The Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BCE) marks a foundational period in the history of the Indian subcontinent characterised by the settlement of Indo-Aryans in the northwestern regions, including the Punjab and the Sarasvati River basin. Its significance lies in its foundational influence on Indian culture and religious practices, which continued to evolve throughout the Vedic period.

About Early Vedic Period (EVP)

• The Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BCE) marks when the Indo-Aryans settled in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, primarily in the Punjab and the Sarasvati River basin.
• During this time, society was predominantly pastoral, with cattle rearing a major occupation alongside agriculture.
• The Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedic texts, was composed during this period. It reflects the people’s religious beliefs, social structure, and daily lives.
• The Early Vedic Period was characterised by a simple, clan-based society where the family and the clan (Jana) were central to social organisation.
• Society was governed by tribal chiefs (Rajans), who led their people in both governance and warfare.
• Religious practices centred on worshipping natural forces and deities such as Agni, Indra, and Varuna through elaborate rituals and sacrifices.

Political Structure of Early Vedic Period

The political structure of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period functioned with the tribal chief at the centre due to his successful leadership in war.
• He was called Rajan. The Rajan was not an absolute monarch, as the tribe’s government was partially responsible for tribal councils like sabha, samiti, gana, and vidatha.
• The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti, which were so influential that chiefs or kings sought their support.
• These clan-based assemblies exercised deliberative, military, and religious functions.
• Even women attended the sabha and the vidatha. The raja’s post was generally hereditary, but there are mentions of the election of the king by the tribal assembly (samiti).

Functionaries Assisting Kings of Early Vedic Period

• The most important official was the Purohita, who, through his sacrifices, ensured the tribe’s prosperity in peace and victory in war.
  
  • Two priests who played a major role during the Rig Veda period were Vasishtha and Vishvamitra.
  • Vasishtha was conservative, while Vishvamitra was liberal and composed the Gayatri mantra to expand the Aryan world. The priests inspired the tribal chiefs to action and praised their exploits.
• The next important functionary was the Senani (General), responsible under the king for minor campaigns and cattle raids against neighbouring tribes.
  
  • There was no regular or standing army; in times of war, the king mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups like Vrata, Gana, Grama, and Sardha.
• The officer with authority over the pasture ground was called Vrajapati. He led the heads of the families (Kulapas) or the heads of the fighting hordes (Graminis) into battle.
  
  • Initially, the Gramani was the head of a small tribal fighting unit. Still, when the unit settled, the Gramani became the head of the village and later was identified with the Vrajapati.

Tribal Assembly of Early Vedic Period

The tribal assembly of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

Vidhata

• Vidatha is the most important assembly in the Rig Vedic period. It served multiple purposes, including secular, religious, and military functions.
• Unlike the Sabha, which is only briefly mentioned in connection with women in the Rig Veda, the Vidatha is frequently associated with women’s active participation.
• Women took part in deliberations alongside men. The Vidatha was the earliest folk assembly of the Aryans, encompassing a wide range of economic, military, religious, and social functions.
• It also acted as a common platform for clans and tribes to engage in the worship of their gods.

Sabha

• The term Sabha refers to both the assembly in the early Rig-Vedic period and the assembly hall in later Rig-Vedic times.
• Women, referred to as Sabhasvatis, attended these assemblies in the early period.
• However, their participation ceased in later Vedic times. The Rig Veda describes the Sabha as a place for dicing and gambling and a venue for dancing, music, witchcraft, and magic.
• It played a role in discussing pastoral affairs and performing judicial and administrative functions, thereby exercising judicial authority.

Samiti

• References to Samiti appear in the later books of the Rig Veda, indicating that it gained significance towards the end of the Rig-Vedic period.
• The Samiti was a folk assembly where tribe members convened to handle tribal matters.
• It addressed philosophical issues and was involved in religious ceremonies and prayers. Records suggest that the Rajan was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.

Comparison of Sabha and Samiti

• Initially, there was no distinction between the Sabha and the Samiti; both were referred to as the daughters of Prajapati and functioned as mobile units led by chiefs who travelled with their forces.
• The primary difference was that the Sabha performed judicial functions, a role not attributed to the Samiti.
• Over time, the Sabha evolved into a minor aristocratic body, while the Samiti ceased to exist.

Economy of Early Vedic Period

Nature of Economy

The nature of the economy of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• Mainly Rural – The Vedic economy was mainly rural, with limited food production and insufficient resources to support an urban population.
• Mainly Pastoral Economy – The Rig Veda contains many references to the cow and the bull, indicating that the Rig Vedic Aryans were predominantly pastoral. Terms like shepherds and pastures suggest they were nomads who moved around grazing their animals.
• Agriculture – Agriculture was also a primary occupation for the Aryans. They had better knowledge of agriculture, including sowing, harvesting, and threshing, and were aware of different seasons. Pre-Aryans in the area also knew agriculture, but it was primarily for fodder production.
• Artificial Means of Irrigation – References to canals and wells indicate using artificial means of irrigation.
• Domestication of Animals – The cow was highly valued and referred to as ‘the sum of all good’. The Rig Vedic Aryans considered cows and bullocks their most valuable possessions.
  
  • The cow was a measure of value, termed “Godhana”, or wealth of the cow.
  • Cow milk was a principal food, and ghee for sacrifices was made from it.

Major Occupations and Ownership of Land

The major occupations of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• According to some scholars, when the Rig Vedic Aryans first entered India, they had a pastoral economy.
• Cattle rearing, particularly cowkeeping, was their principal occupation. Gradually, they took to agriculture, which became one of their principal occupations.
• Ultimately, agriculture and cattle rearing became two principal occupations of the Rig Vedic Aryans. Food grains like paddy (Breahi) and barley were grown.

Industry

The industry of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• The weaving of cotton and wool was the principal industry of the Rig Vedic Aryans. Both men and women were engaged in this industry.
• The carpenter made chariots, ploughs, wagons, and houses. Carpentry was a lucrative profession.
• The Aryans were technically well-equipped. The blacksmiths made weapons and household implements, and the goldsmiths made ornaments.
• Their bronze smiths were highly skilled, producing tools and weapons much superior to those of the Harappan culture.
• Bronze smiths, carpenters, and chariot-makers are frequently mentioned in the Rig Veda with much respect.

Trade and Commerce

The trade and commerce of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• The Rig Vedic people of the Early Vedic Society traded with members of the same tribe and with other tribes.
  
  • Sometimes, traders made journeys to distant lands for larger profits in trade.
• The cutting of the jungles and the expansion of the Aryan settlement in Eastern India increased trade volume.
• The banks of the Yamuna and the Indus tributaries were dotted with Aryan villages. Trade between them was likely carried along the river route.
• Trade by land route was also carried out.

Transportation and Medium of Trade

The medium of trade of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• The chief means of transport by land were Rathas (chariots) and wagons drawn by horses and oxen, while boats were used for the river route.
• The principal media of trade was the barter system. Cattle were a sort of currency, and values were reckoned in the heads of cattle, but they were not held sacred at this time. Both oxen and cows were slaughtered for food.
• The horse was almost as crucial as the cow. Although there are references to riding, the horse is more frequently described as the major power of the chariot—a light chariot with two spoked wheels drawn by two horses yoked abreast and carrying two warriors.
• Gradually, pieces of gold called “Nishka” were used to exchange.
• Commerce was generally managed by a class of people called Pani, who were probably non-Aryan. The Aryans regarded them as very clever.

Overseas Trade

The overseas trade of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• We do not know whether the Aryans had overseas trade with West Asian countries. The Harappans had extensive trade with West Asia, but it is not certain whether the Aryans were able to continue it.
• As the Aryan civilization in the Rig Vedic Age was less industrial and less urban than that of the Harappans, it may be presumed that the Aryan trade was local.
• Some scholars hold that the Rig Veda refers to a vast trade that can only be external trade.

Social Life of Early Vedic Period

Family Life

The family life of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• The family life of Aryan people was very simple but well organized under the headship of the eldest member of the family.
• The family system was based on the patriarchal form of society.
• Male members ruled the families or kulas. The head of the family or kula was called kulapa (originating from the Sanskrit word ‘Pa’ meaning ‘to protect’).
  
  • He was responsible for looking after the welfare and the life and property of the family.
• As a rule, the family was based on joint responsibility, where women enjoyed a respectable position.
• The head of the family usually led the family prayer, and the women could join and sometimes take a leading part.

Position of Women

The position of women of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• The Rig Vedic families were patrilineal, and the birth of a male child was always desired. A couple without a son was deplored like poverty. Adoption of sons was welcomed. However, when a female child was born, she was not neglected, and her education was not denied.
  
  • Female scholars like Ghosha, Vishwavara, and Apala were known in the Rig Vedic Society Age, and few Vedic hymns were composed by them.
• Women could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands.
• A female child had no right to perform the funeral rites of the father. The wife could participate in religious rites with her husband and was considered queen of the house, overseeing the husband, children, aged father-in-law, and household servants.
• There was no Purdah system.
• Women had the liberty of free participation in festivals.
• Girls were usually married after attaining puberty, but child marriage was not known.
  
  • The marriageable age in the Rig Veda seems to have been 16 to 17. Free choice on the part of both the bride and bridegroom was permitted.
• Marriage of love was not unknown. An undesirable son-in-law had to pay the bride’s price. Both dowry and bride-price were recognized. Girls with physical defects had to be provided with dowries during their marriage.
• Polygamy was practiced, but there are indications of polyandry. However, monogamy was the general rule during the Early Vedic Period.
• Widow remarriage was permitted.
• The custom of marrying the brother’s widow was prevalent.
• Women were not independent in the eyes of Rig Vedic law and had to remain under the protecting care of their male relations.

Social Divisions

The social divisions of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• The Rig Veda shows some consciousness of the physical appearance of people in north-western India around 1500-1000 BC.
• Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryan language speakers were fair, while the indigenous inhabitants (Dasyus) were dark in complexion.
• The factor that contributed most to the creation of social divisions was the conquest of the indigenous inhabitants by the Aryans.
  
  • The Dasa and the Dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and Kshudras.
• The Rig Veda mentions Aryavarna and Dasavarna. The tribal chiefs and the priests acquired a larger share of the booty, and they naturally grew at the cost of their kinsmen, which created social inequalities in the tribe.

Society of Early Vedic Period

Structure of Society

The structure of society of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• During the Rig-Vedic era, the foundation of society was the family; the basic unit of power lay within a patriarchal family (Kula).
• A group of such families formed a grama, which was controlled by a village headman (Gramini).
• The groups of villages belonged to a clan (Vis), and many clans made a community called Jana.
• Vis was probably divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting.

Nature of Society

The nature of society of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• Patriarchal Society – The family was staunchly patrilineal and patriarchal. The wife, though she enjoyed a respectable position, was definitely subordinate to her husband.
  
  • Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, with no reference to divorce. The birth of a son was highly desired, and people prayed to the gods for brave sons to fight in wars.
• Egalitarian Society – The caste-system was not organized during the Rig Vedic Period.
  
  • There were no Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, or Shudras. Anyone could adopt any profession without any association with a well-formed caste.
• Rural Civilization – The people of the Early Rig Vedic Society mainly lived in villages. Houses were built of wood or reed straw and contained several apartments.
  
  • There were fortified places called Puras, where people took shelter during invasions. Pura did not necessarily mean a town or city, as cities and towns were very few in this age.
• Four Stages of Life – During the later part of the Rig Vedic Age, the ideal of Four Ashramas developed. Boys of the higher classes lived as students (Brahmacharins) in teachers’ houses to learn grammar, prosody, poetry, and the Vedas.
  
  • After completing this phase, they became Grihastha (householders), then Vanaprastha (forest hermits), and finally Sannyasins (ascetics).
• Modes of Recreation – Both men and women enjoyed dancing and singing. Horse races and gambling were male pastimes.
  
  • The Aryans loved music, playing the flute and harp, with accompaniment from cymbals and drums, using a heptatonic scale. They also enjoyed chariot races.
• Clothing – The Rig Vedic people wore cotton and woolen garments, and sometimes deer skins.
  
  • Men generally wore one lower and one upper garment called Vasa and Adhivasa. Women, in addition, wore an under garment called “Nivi”.
• Ornaments – Rig Vedic ladies used gold ornaments of various types, sometimes studded with precious stones.
  
  • Women wore long hair, which was combed, oiled, and plaited. The rich had colored and embroidered clothes. Both men and women wore ornaments.
• Food Habits – Daily food included barley, rice, beans, vegetables, milk, milk-products, and cakes.
  
  • They also ate non-vegetarian foods like fish, birds, goats, bulls, horses, etc. They drank intoxicating liquor called Sura and Soma (from plant juice).
  • Soma was used in sacrifices and sanctified by religion, while Sura was secular and more potent, disapproved by priestly poets.
  • Special sacrifices needed the expert supervision of the Brahmin, but the head of the family usually performed rituals and ceremonies.
• Institution of Marriage – The institution of marriage was established, though symbols of primitive practices survived. There were some indications of polyandry, though rare.
  
  • There were also possibilities of matrilineal traces, with examples of sons named after their mother, like Mamateya.

Religious Life of Early Vedic Period

The religious life of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

• The early Vedic religion is also known as Henotheism or Kathenotheism—a belief in single gods, each in turn standing out as the highest. It has also been described as the worship of Nature.
• Another important feature was the tendency towards monotheism and even monism.
  
  • Using material objects as symbols of deities was not entirely unknown. Regarding life after death, the Rigvedic hymns have no consistent theory.
• They personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings. The Aryans greatly respected nature, and wherever they found beauty or power in natural manifestations, they would bow their heads and entreat mercy from that object.
• Agni and Indra were invited to partake of sacrifices made by the whole tribe (Jana).
  
  • Offerings of vegetables, barley, etc. were made to gods. They asked mainly for Praja (children), Pashu (cattle), food, wealth, health, etc.
• The Rig Veda, predominantly a religious scripture, provides ample insight into religious beliefs.
  
  • The religion of the time was simple and free of all formalities. The only congregational prayer was Yagya.

Importance of Early Vedic Period

The importance of the Early Vedic Period is:

• The country got its name after a clan called Bharata.
• Spiritually and culturally important: It was during this period that India presented to human culture one of its invaluable contributions – the Vedic Literature.
• Cultural cross linkages: There was an exchange of languages, with common words in different languages such as Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin sharing a lot of common words.
• The society had a strong family system and was egalitarian with less social divisions and inequalities.
• The position of women was respectful, and many women scholars emerged during this period.

Limitations of Early Vedic Period

The limitations of the Early Vedic Period are:

• Differences started growing in this period, which culminated in the poor status of women, substantial caste inequalities, a patriarchal mindset, myriad rituals, idol worship, and the Varna system in the later Vedic period.
• Continuous inter- and intra-tribal wars caused the loss of men and material goods, which could have otherwise led to the development of society.
• The positions of priests strengthened while those of the lower castes deteriorated.
• A hereditary and occupation-based caste and class system with the concept of blood purity was strengthened.
• Instances of slavery were found but were only in a nebulous stage.

Difference between Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period

The difference between the Early Vedic Period and the Later Vedic Period can be seen as follows:

Conclusion

The Early Vedic Period was a pivotal period that shaped ancient India’s cultural and religious landscape. While it was marked by a strong family system, relative social equality, and significant contributions to Vedic literature, it also laid the foundations for later social stratifications and complexities. The period’s legacy includes a profound respect for nature, an evolving religious practice, and early social structures that influenced subsequent historical developments. Understanding the Early Vedic Period provides crucial insights into the origins of many cultural and religious traditions that resonate in India today.

The Indus Valley civilization was primarily an urban civilization, with well-planned towns intended to meet the requirements of the people who lived in them as well as the physical and climatic constraints they encountered. Many writers have been interested in discovering predecessors to the religious rituals and deities of much later Indian faiths, therefore the religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people have gotten a lot of study. However, because of the scarcity of evidence, which is subject to several interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains untranslated.

Religious Practises of IVC

• It is true that the cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro flourished around 3000 BC.
• The fact that they were well-planned cities supports the argument that urban planning and the level of sophistication that went into its execution could not have been possible without corresponding development in various fields over several centuries.
• It’s questionable if the technology and expertise used to build such massive cities were entirely indigenous or imported.
• Some portions of understanding of base numbers, metallurgy, astrology, and some elements of Hinduism, yoga, and other schools of thought might have been left by this enormous and fascinating society.
• Many Harappan religious reconstructions are based on the premise that later traditions reveal similarities with earlier ones.
• This is due to the fact that archaeologists frequently shift from the known to the unknown, or from the present to the past.
• While this is feasible for stone quarns and pots, it becomes more speculative when applied to “religious” symbols.

Religious Beliefs of Indus People

• Along with male and female deities, the Indus people most likely worshipped Mother Goddess.
• They worshipped a father God who was likely a founder of the race and a prototype of Siva as the Lord of the Animals.
• They were familiar with some type of yoga and meditation.
• They believed in some form of tree of life, portrayed on seals as a Pipal or Acacia tree, protected by a guardian spirit against an evil power signified by a tiger.
• The guardian spirit is shown in seals as a bull, a serpent, a goat, a legendary creature, or an animal.
• They worshipped fertility symbols like round stones and perforated stones, which predated the worship of Siva and Parvathi in the form Sivalinga.
• They might have believed in magical rites, charms, and amulets, as well as ghosts and demons.
• They typically cremated the dead and left certain artefacts as offerings for their afterlives.
• The great bath of Mohenjo-Daro, or the much larger one discovered recently at the Dholavira site in Kutch, was most likely a prototype temple ponds, or sacred tank, found in ancient temples of southern India, where people might have taken purification baths or collectively participated in some kind of ritual bath on important occasions.
• The presence of baths and the presence of animals in the Indus seals imply that they may have utilised water and animals in sacrifice rituals as offerings or for expiation and ceremonial cleaning.
• Archaeologists have discovered no structures resembling temples, palaces, or monuments.
• In reality, most other modern civilisations have some sort of major monument.
• Despite the presence of granaries and public baths, the lack of a palace or temple led historians to think that the Indus Valley culture was egalitarian.
• They might have used their understanding of brick construction and geometric patterns to construct sacrifice altars.
• However, no sacrifice altars or pits have been discovered in the excavations at the Indus Valley sites.

Seals of IVC

• The Mohenjo-daro seal, also known as the “sacrifice” seal, of which only a few instances have been discovered, is widely assumed to depict a religious ceremony of some kind, however readings of the imagery and interpretations of the scene differ greatly.
• The majority of Indus seals portray a single animal with no evident narrative significance.
• Several are more sophisticated, with symbolic patterns and human or semi-human characters in action.
• A bull-man or bull-woman can be depicted fighting a spectacular horned beast with hooves, a tail, and massive horns.
• Men can be seen hiding in trees from tigers, while another can be seen fighting two tigers at once in a pattern reminiscent of the Master of Animals.
• It was thought to be one of the oldest portrayals of the Hindu god Shiva, with “Pashupati” (Lord of Animals) being one of his epithets, or a “proto-Shiva” deity.
• Though the mix of features in the Pashupati seal is unique, some of them can be found in other Indus seals.

Pasupathi seal

Advent of Vedic Culture

• The Indus people created a massive civilisation that inexplicably vanished by 1800 BC, only to be replaced by Vedic culture in portions of India.
• They were familiar with a written script that has yet to be deciphered and which they utilised in their seals.
• The Aryan colonisation of the Indo-Gangetic Plains marked the beginning of the Vedic Age.
• The Vedic Age lasted from 1500 BC until 600 BC. After the demise of the Indus Valley Civilisation around 1400 BC, this was the next significant civilization in ancient India.
• The Vedas were written during this time period, thus the name.

Conclusion

Historians know relatively little about the Indus valley people’s religious practices. The Indus valley civilization spanned an area in the Indian subcontinent greater than modern-day Europe during its heyday. The civilisation existed between 3500 and 2000 BC, with predecessors extending back to the Neolithic era between 7000 and 6000 BC.

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, is one of the most important periods in the history of India. It is one of the earliest civilizations of Near East and South Asia. The civilization lasted from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE and the major growth of IVC was seen between 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Based on this, the IVC era can be divided into three phases, including the Early Harappan Phase (3300-2600 BCE), the Mature Harappan Phase (2600-1750 BCE), and the Later Harappan Phase (1750-1300 BCE).

Indus Valley Civilization was the largest civilization at that time, covering the areas of northwestern & western India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.

Characteristics of The Indus Valley Civilization

Named after the Indus River System, the Indus Valley Civilization was spread across a larger area as compared to the other contemporary civilizations. It covers almost 1,600 km (from east to west), and 1,400 km (from north to south). The people of IVC used to domesticate animals, practice agriculture, and have a great knowledge of architecture. Some most significant features of the Indus Valley Civilization are listed below:

1. Town Planning

The structures built on IVC sites say a lot about the architectural sense of the people living there. They used to live in well-built houses and practice some advanced methods for the conservation of resources. Here are some important facts you must know about their town planning:

• There is no evidence of temples, palaces, or pyramids. However, it has been found that the people of IVC followed a well-structured grid pattern to build houses.
• They were utility-driven and focused on minimizing resource wastage.
• They put major emphasis on sewer management, disaster management, and water conservation.
• The spatial distribution of the city is another important characteristic of the Indus Valley Civilization. The cities used to be either 2-fold or 3-fold. In a 2-fold city, there was a citadel for elite residents and a lower town for the normal people. On the other hand, a 3-fold city was divided into three parts, including the citadel, the middle town, and the lower town. Dholavira is an example of 3-fold city.
• The most widely used building materials in IVC include kiln-fired bricks, mud bricks, wood, and reeds.
• In every house, there used to be a courtyard surrounded by rooms. However, the number of rooms was found to be different at different sites.
• Every house had its own drainage system connecting to the street drains.

2. Agriculture

Arable agriculture and animal husbandry were among the major sources of economy for the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. The rivers of the area were either snow-fed or monsoon-fed. The annual floods occurring in the area were highly responsible for the fertility of the soil of the IVC area. Some additional points you must know about the agricultural practices performed during IVC are as follows:

• Irrigation and Water Conservation were among the most important activities performed by the locals of IVC.
• They used to grow cereals, pulses, cotton, and several other plants, including mustard, sesame, dates, and legumes.
• Evidence of rice cultivation was found in Lothal & Banawali and that of cotton in Lothal.
• Granaries were used to store agricultural surplus.
• Evidence of dairy farming has also been found in Kotada Badli of Gujarat.

3. Subsistence Base

The subsistence strategies of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization include the use of technology, agricultural surplus, animal husbandry, and tools. They used the technology of canals, dams, and reservoirs for irrigation. For agriculture, people of IVC were using wooden plough (found in Kalibhangan field). Apart from this, they were using tools made of copper, bronze, and stone. A large number of copper tools have been found in the initial stage of IVC.

They used to domesticate animals like dogs, buffalo, horses, cattles, etc. Though there is no surety about the domestication of horses, a horse has been found in Surkotada. Also, they used the bones of wild animals to make seals.

4. Religious Beliefs

There is no evidence of temples, other religious buildings, or priestly influence in the IVC. However, a seal mother Goddess (called the Fertility Cult) was found in Harappa, Mohenjaodaro, and Banawali. The seal shows a tree coming out of the womb of the Goddess. Therefore, it can be said that worship of mother Earth might have started in IVC. Along with this, a seal of the male God (called the Pashupati seal) has also been found.

The people of the Indus Valley Civilization also used to worship nature and animals, such as Peepal tree, Humped Bull, Snake, and Unicorn. Moreover, the Great Bath at Kalibangan was used for ritual ablution. The cylindrical seal and triangular cake at Kalibangan give evidence of people’s belief in human and animal sacrifice during the IVC era. For more information about the Religion of Indus Valley Civilization.

5. Trade & Commerce

The people of IVC were also well-versed in trade and commerce methods. Commercial activities were one of the primary reasons behind the flourishing economy of the Harappan civilization. The rural areas were linked with the urban areas due to agricultural surplus and raw materials. They also used to follow a barter system for the exchange of goods and sometimes seals as coins. The following are some of the most important goods (along with their major sources) that were traded during the IVC era:

• Gold from Kolar Mines
• Rice from Banawali
• Copper from Khetri Mines
• Cotton from Lothal and Sindh
• Sea-shell from Gujarat coasts
• Lead & Zinc from Rajasthan
• Tin from Haryana
• Lapis Lazuli (a colorful semi-precious stone) from Afghanistan

Indus Valley River

As you might be aware, the Harappan Civilization was named Indus Valley Civilization after the river Indus, which is a trans-Himalayan river of the South Asia. It is one of the longest rivers in the world with an annual flow of around 58 cubic miles. Located in the middle of Sindh and Punjab, Indus river is considered one of the primary factors responsible behind the rise of the greatest ancient civilization, i.e. the Indus Valley Civilization.

Due to the river, the soil of the nearby was extremely fertile, which influenced the rise of agriculture during the IVC. The river was also the major source of irrigation for the people of IVC. Another important role that the Indus river played in the development of mature harrapan phase was allowing for transportation of food and crops through it. The river was acting as a mode of transportation for different types of trading, including foreign trading, article trading, and agriculture trading.

Important Facts About Indus Valley Civilization

The period of IVC has always been an important topic for the UPSC CSE examination. From the UPSC point of view, you must be aware of the below-listed facts about the Indus Valley Civilization:

1. The population of IVC was more than 5 million.
2. It was John Marshell who excavated Harappa in 1920 and discovered that it was the first ever urban site.
3. Mohenjadaro and Harappa are the capital cities of IVC.
4. Sutkagendor, Balakot, Lothal, Allahdino, and Kuntasi are the port cities of IVC.
5. IVC was the largest among the four civilizations of the world, the other three being Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China.
6. Many archeologists also call it the ‘Indus-Saraswati Civilizations’ instead of IVC on the basis of the two river systems while others call it Harappan Civilization as Harappa was the first urban site to be discovered.
7. Most of the IVC people were involved in artistic or trading activities.
8. Though there were no temples or priestly influence during IVC, archeologists have found evidence of worship of nature and animals.
9. The Great Bath (for ritual bathing), the Great Granary (for agricultural surplus), the Lothal Dockyard (for sea trade), and the Dholavira Reservoir (for irrigation) are some most important structures of IVC.
10. The smallest site in the IVC was Allahdino.

Though there is no clarity about the center of power in IVC, it can be clearly seen that everything (from trade & commerce to agriculture, and other activities) was being managed very well. There might have been some type of government that instructed the public to perform tasks in a certain way. Trade and commerce were very well-regulated and might have been the biggest reason behind the flourishing economy of the civilization. Many urban settlements emerged even after the decline of IVC, but the legacy of the Indus Valley Civilization remains the same.

The Vedic religion, also known as Vedism or early Brahmanism, forms the bedrock of Hinduism and is one of the earliest organized religious systems in the world. Emerging around 1500 BCE with the arrival of the Indo-Aryans in the Indian subcontinent, Vedic religion derives its name from the Vedas, the oldest religious texts of India. These texts, primarily composed in Sanskrit, provide a comprehensive account of the beliefs, practices, and worldview of Vedic society. The Vedic religion was not a monolithic system but a complex amalgamation of ritual practices, philosophical speculations, and spiritual ideas that evolved over time.

Sacred Texts: The Foundation of Vedic Religion

The Vedas are the most important source of knowledge about Vedic religion. They consist of four main texts: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. Each Veda is further divided into four sections: the Samhitas (hymns), Brahmanas (ritual explanations), Aranyakas (theological discussions), and Upanishads (philosophical speculations).

1. Rigveda: The oldest and most important Veda, the Rigveda consists of 1,028 hymns dedicated to various deities. It reflects the polytheistic nature of Vedic religion and contains hymns for rituals, prayers, and invocations.

2. Samaveda: Primarily a collection of hymns adapted from the Rigveda, the Samaveda focuses on melodies and chants used in sacrifices.

3. Yajurveda: A compilation of prose and verse, it provides instructions for performing rituals and sacrifices.

4. Atharvaveda: Containing hymns, spells, and incantations, it deals with everyday life issues, such as health, protection, and prosperity, alongside religious rituals.

These texts collectively outline the religious framework, emphasizing the importance of ritual practices, sacrifices, and devotion to the gods.

Deities: The Pantheon of Vedic Religion

The Vedic religion was polytheistic, with a rich pantheon of gods representing natural and cosmic forces. These deities were anthropomorphic in nature and were worshipped through hymns and sacrifices. The most prominent Vedic deities include:

• Indra: The king of the gods and the god of rain and thunderstorms. Indra is celebrated as a warrior deity who slays the demon Vritra to release the waters.
• Agni: The fire god and mediator between humans and gods, Agni was central to sacrificial rituals as the carrier of offerings.
• Varuna: The guardian of cosmic order (rta) and moral justice, Varuna was associated with the vastness of the sky and the sea.
• Surya: The sun god, representing life and energy.
• Soma: Both a deity and a ritual drink, Soma symbolized vitality and immortality.
• Rudra: A storm and fertility god, who later evolved into the Shaivite deity Shiva.

In addition to male deities, goddesses such as Aditi (mother of gods) and Prithvi (earth goddess) also played significant roles.

Sacrifices and Rituals: The Heart of Vedic Worship

Rituals and sacrifices were the central components of Vedic religion, serving as a means to sustain cosmic order and establish a connection between humans and gods. These rituals were meticulously prescribed and performed by the Brahmin priests, who acted as intermediaries between the divine and the mortal worlds.

The most important rituals included:

• Yajna (sacrifice): Offerings of food, ghee, animals, or the Soma drink were made into the sacred fire, with Agni acting as the conduit to the gods. Major yajnas included:

  • Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice): A royal ritual symbolizing sovereignty and territorial expansion.
  • Rajasuya: A consecration ceremony for kings.
  • Agnihotra: A daily ritual offering to Agni.

• Chanting of hymns: The recitation of Rigvedic hymns was integral to invoking the deities and ensuring the efficacy of rituals.

These rituals were seen as a way to maintain rta, the cosmic and moral order, ensuring prosperity, health, and victory.

Cosmology and Worldview

The cosmology of Vedic religion was deeply connected to the idea of rta, the universal order that governed the natural and moral worlds. This order was upheld by the gods and maintained through human rituals and moral conduct.

The Vedic texts describe the creation of the universe in various ways. The Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rigveda speculates about the origins of the cosmos, expressing both wonder and uncertainty. Another prominent account is found in the Purusha Sukta, which describes the universe as emerging from the cosmic being, Purusha, whose body parts became the elements of creation.

The Vedic worldview also included belief in karma (action) and reincarnation, ideas that became more developed in the later Upanishads. The ultimate goal of life was achieving moksha (liberation) from the cycle of birth and death.

Social Structure and the Varna System

The Vedic religion was closely tied to the varna system, a hierarchical social order that divided society into four groups:

• Brahmins (priests and scholars): Responsible for performing rituals and preserving sacred knowledge.
• Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers): Tasked with protecting society and upholding dharma.
• Vaishyas (traders and agriculturists): Engaged in commerce and agriculture.
• Shudras (laborers and service providers): Served the other three varnas.

This system was initially flexible, based on individual qualities and professions, but it later became rigid and hereditary, giving rise to the caste system.

Philosophical and Mystical Developments

While early Vedic religion emphasized rituals, the later Vedic period saw a shift towards philosophical and mystical inquiry. The Upanishads, composed around 800–500 BCE, represent this transition. They questioned the ritualistic focus of the earlier texts and introduced profound ideas about the nature of reality and the self.

Key concepts of the Upanishads include:

• Brahman: The ultimate, formless reality that pervades the universe.
• Atman: The individual soul, which is ultimately identical to Brahman.
• Moksha: Liberation from the cycle of rebirth through knowledge and self-realization.

This philosophical evolution laid the foundation for later Hinduism, as well as Buddhism and Jainism.

Transition to Later Hinduism

By the end of the Vedic period, around 500 BCE, the rigid ritualism of early Vedic religion began to give way to more diverse practices and beliefs. The rise of Bhakti (devotion) and the incorporation of local deities into the Vedic pantheon marked the transition to classical Hinduism. Epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana and the Puranas integrated Vedic ideas with new theological and narrative elements, ensuring the continuity and adaptability of the Vedic tradition.

Conclusion

The Vedic religion is a multifaceted system that combined rituals, mythology, philosophy, and social norms. Its emphasis on maintaining cosmic order, devotion to a pantheon of deities, and philosophical inquiry into the nature of existence created a rich and enduring cultural legacy. While its ritualistic aspects evolved over time, its foundational ideas continued to influence Indian spiritual traditions, making it a cornerstone of the subcontinent’s religious and cultural heritage.