The history of the Pratihara dynasty, a prominent power in early medieval northern India, is marked by a series of military conquests, cultural advancements, and political strategies that shaped the subcontinent from the 8th to the 11th century. Their history, particularly up to the reign of Nagabhatta II, is characterized by their rise to prominence amidst the fragmentation following the decline of the Gupta Empire and the subsequent struggles against regional rivals, including the Rashtrakutas, the Palas, and the Arabs. The Pratiharas, often referred to as the Gurjara-Pratiharas, were a key force in consolidating power in northern India and played a pivotal role in shaping the region’s political landscape during the early medieval period.

Origins of the Pratiharas

The Pratihara dynasty emerged in the 7th century CE as part of the Gurjara ethnic group, which was native to the western and central regions of India, including Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Pratiharas were originally a part of the Gurjara-Chauhan confederation, which had gained prominence in the post-Gupta period, as the Gupta Empire’s central authority had weakened due to the Huna invasions and other regional disruptions. The exact origins of the Pratihara family are obscure, but they are traditionally said to have descended from the Gurjara people, with their name “Pratihara” meaning “doorkeeper” or “protector,” suggesting their early role as military commanders and protectors of important regions.

The earliest known ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Harichandra, though he is mostly known through later historical accounts. It is during the reign of Nagabhatta I, in the early 8th century, that the dynasty began to assert its power more decisively. Nagabhatta I is credited with founding the Pratihara kingdom and establishing the family as a major political force in northern India.

Nagabhatta I and the Consolidation of Power

Nagabhatta I (c. 730–756 CE) is considered the real founder of the Pratihara dynasty in its more definitive form. He rose to prominence in the wake of the decline of the Gupta Empire and the invasions of the Hunas, as well as the power vacuum created by the weakening of smaller kingdoms in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the surrounding areas. Nagabhatta I’s reign marks the consolidation of the Pratihara kingdom, which was initially based in the region of Malwa and Rajputana.

Nagabhatta I is famously remembered for his victory over the Arabs, who had been expanding their influence in the Indian subcontinent after their invasion of Sindh in the early 8th century. In 738 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate launched expeditions into the Indian subcontinent from their base in Sindh, threatening to expand their rule into the heart of northern India. Nagabhatta I successfully repelled these forces, preventing further Arab expansion into the region. His victory over the Arabs is one of the defining achievements of his reign and helped to establish the Pratihara dynasty as a dominant power in the north.

During Nagabhatta I’s reign, the Pratiharas strengthened their hold over the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and neighboring regions, establishing themselves as the leading power in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. They had control over significant trade routes and benefited from the agricultural richness of the Ganga and Yamuna river plains, which were vital for sustaining their growing power. As a result, the Pratiharas were able to extend their influence over a wide region, including areas like Malwa, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.

Nagabhatta II and the Height of the Pratihara Power

The reign of Nagabhatta II (c. 800–833 CE) represents the zenith of the Pratihara dynasty’s political power and territorial expansion. He is regarded as one of the most successful and illustrious rulers of the dynasty, as his reign marks the height of Pratihara dominance in northern India.

Nagabhatta II’s rise to power followed a period of turmoil, as the kingdom faced external threats from both the Rashtrakutas to the south and the Palas to the east. The Rashtrakutas, under Dhruva and later Amoghavarsha I, had consolidated power in the Deccan and posed a significant challenge to the Pratiharas. At the same time, the Palas, particularly under Dharmapala, were expanding in the eastern regions of the Ganga valley.

One of Nagabhatta II’s most significant military achievements was his victory over the Rashtrakutas. In the early 9th century, Nagabhatta II decisively defeated the Rashtrakutas in a series of battles, ensuring that the Pratiharas retained their supremacy in northern India. This victory solidified his position as the most powerful king in northern India, at a time when other dynasties, including the Palas, were also vying for dominance.

Nagabhatta II’s control extended over a wide region, encompassing modern-day Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and parts of Maharashtra. His capital was located at Kannauj, a strategically important city in the heart of northern India. Kannauj became a center of political, cultural, and religious life during Nagabhatta II’s reign, attracting scholars, poets, and religious figures from across the subcontinent.

Relations with the Palas and Rashtrakutas

Nagabhatta II’s reign was characterized by both rivalry and diplomacy. His struggle with the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan was not just a military contest, but also a battle for supremacy over the entire northern and central parts of India.

In addition to his military prowess, Nagabhatta II was known for his diplomatic acumen. He often allied with the Palas and even forged temporary alliances with the Rashtrakutas to balance the threats posed by other regional powers. However, his political and military successes were not without challenges. The Palas under Dharmapala sought to expand westward, and there were instances of military conflict between the Pratiharas and the Palas, particularly over control of the Ganga valley.

One of the most famous episodes of Nagabhatta II’s reign was his role in the tripartite struggle that involved the Rashtrakutas, Palas, and the Pratiharas, each vying for control of Kannauj. This power struggle for Kannauj, which lasted for decades, symbolized the intense competition between these dynasties for political and cultural supremacy in northern India.

Cultural Patronage and Administrative Reforms

Nagabhatta II’s reign was not only marked by military conquests but also by a flourishing of culture and administration. He supported Brahmanical Hinduism, and his reign is often associated with the revival of religious and cultural activities in the north. Sanskrit literature flourished under his patronage, and his court attracted scholars, poets, and artists. He also encouraged the building of temples and other architectural projects, contributing to the growth of religious institutions in his realm.

Administratively, Nagabhatta II is believed to have maintained a well-organized and efficient kingdom. The Pratiharas are known to have employed a system of local governance, where regional chieftains and military commanders were given significant autonomy, provided they remained loyal to the central authority. This decentralized system helped manage the vast territory under Nagabhatta II’s rule, though it also posed challenges in maintaining cohesion in the long run.

Decline and Legacy

Although Nagabhatta II’s reign marked the height of the Pratihara dynasty’s power, the dynasty began to face challenges in the years following his death. The tripartite struggle for control over Kannauj continued, but with diminishing returns for the Pratiharas. By the mid-9th century, the Rashtrakutas and Palas had gained the upper hand, leading to a decline in the Pratihara’s territorial control and influence.

However, the legacy of the Pratiharas, particularly under Nagabhatta II, lived on. The dynasty’s contributions to the political consolidation of northern India, as well as their patronage of culture and religion, had a lasting impact on the subcontinent’s history. The Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom remains an essential part of the historical narrative of early medieval India, and Nagabhatta II is remembered as one of its most successful and influential rulers.

Conclusion

The Pratihara dynasty, and particularly Nagabhatta II, played a crucial role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of northern India during the early medieval period. Their military conquests, administrative acumen, and cultural patronage helped consolidate power in northern India and resist external threats, particularly from the Arabs and other regional powers. Though the dynasty faced challenges after Nagabhatta II’s reign, his efforts in unifying and strengthening northern India left a significant legacy in the subcontinent’s history.

The Rashtrakuta dynasty, one of the most powerful and influential empires in early medieval India, is known for its extensive military campaigns, particularly in northern India. The dynasty, which originated in the Deccan region, was able to expand its territory far beyond its base, exerting influence over vast regions of northern India. This expansion occurred during the reigns of notable Rashtrakuta rulers such as Dantidurga, Dhruva, Govinda III, and Amoghavarsha I. These military campaigns were integral to the rise of the Rashtrakutas as a dominant force in the subcontinent, and their impact on the political landscape of northern India remains significant.

Background and Rise of the Rashtrakutas

The Rashtrakuta dynasty began as a relatively obscure family in the Deccan Plateau, with their initial capital at Manyakheta (modern-day Malkhed, Karnataka). The rise of the Rashtrakutas was part of the broader historical shift in the subcontinent, following the decline of the Gupta Empire and the subsequent rise of regional kingdoms. The early history of the Rashtrakutas is shrouded in some mystery, but their military and political prowess began to shine with the reign of Dantidurga (c. 735–756 CE), who initiated the series of military campaigns that would see the dynasty expand significantly.

Dantidurga and the Expansion into North India

Dantidurga is credited with laying the foundations of Rashtrakuta power through a series of military campaigns that extended the empire beyond the Deccan region into northern India. His most notable military achievement was his defeat of the Chalukyas of Badami and the annexation of the territory under Rashtrakuta control. This victory not only expanded Rashtrakuta territory but also allowed the Rashtrakutas to assert dominance over key strategic regions, especially in central and western India.

As Dantidurga consolidated his hold over the Deccan, he also turned his attention to the northwestern regions. He invaded the Pratihara kingdom, one of the most powerful forces in northern India at the time. Dantidurga’s campaign against the Pratiharas was a strategic attempt to curb the growing influence of this northern dynasty. While the results of these campaigns are not entirely clear, it is widely accepted that Dantidurga succeeded in weakening the Pratiharas and ensured that Rashtrakuta power was not contested in the north for the time being.

Dhruva (c. 780–793 CE) and the Northern Campaigns

The next significant ruler in the Rashtrakuta dynasty was Dhruva (c. 780–793 CE), the son of Dantidurga. Dhruva expanded upon his father’s legacy, further consolidating the Rashtrakuta empire and launching military campaigns aimed at securing control over more parts of northern India. One of Dhruva’s most notable achievements was his victory over the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty in northern India, which had become one of the leading powers in the region.

Dhruva’s military successes were not just confined to the Pratiharas but also extended to other northern kingdoms. His reign marked a significant period of expansion, as he sought to counterbalance the influence of the Palas in the east and the Chalukyas in the south. The victories of Dhruva enabled the Rashtrakutas to challenge the growing influence of regional kingdoms and solidified their control over a vast swath of land stretching from the Deccan to northern India.

One of the major military expeditions under Dhruva was against the Maukharis of Kannauj. Although the historical details of this campaign remain unclear, it is believed that Dhruva achieved significant success in asserting Rashtrakuta influence over northern India and weakened the position of regional rivals. These campaigns helped establish Dhruva as one of the most formidable rulers of his time and paved the way for his successors to further expand Rashtrakuta power.

Govinda III (c. 793–814 CE) and the Height of Rashtrakuta Power

Govinda III (c. 793–814 CE), the son of Dhruva, is perhaps the most famous Rashtrakuta emperor in terms of military conquests. His reign represents the height of Rashtrakuta power, particularly in northern India. Govinda III is known for his successful campaigns against the Pratiharas, the Palas, and the Rashtrakutas of the north, thereby securing Rashtrakuta control over a vast and diverse empire.

Govinda III’s most celebrated military achievement was his victory over Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty, which established his supremacy over a significant portion of western and central India. Govinda III’s success against the Chalukyas allowed him to focus on expanding his power further north, where he engaged in a protracted struggle with the Gurjara-Pratiharas. The Pratiharas, led by Nagabhatta II, had been a major force in northern India, and their power had to be diminished to ensure the continued dominance of the Rashtrakutas.

Govinda III’s northern expeditions were part of the larger tripartite struggle for control over Kannauj, the most strategically significant city in northern India. Kannauj was a symbol of political and cultural prestige, and control over it was considered essential for asserting dominance in the region. During his campaign, Govinda III fought against Vikramaditya II of the Chalukyas and Nagabhatta II of the Pratihara dynasty, two major powers vying for control of the region.

After a series of victories and counterattacks, Govinda III emerged victorious in the battle for Kannauj, and the Rashtrakutas briefly controlled this key city. His military campaigns against the Palas also contributed to his power in northern India. Although the Palas managed to maintain control over the eastern part of India, Govinda III’s victories over them in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and in the Ganges valley marked a significant expansion of Rashtrakuta influence.

Amoghavarsha I and the Stabilization of Rashtrakuta Rule

Amoghavarsha I (c. 814–878 CE), one of the most celebrated Rashtrakuta emperors, is remembered for his military prowess as well as his cultural contributions. While his reign is not marked by aggressive expansion in the north, Amoghavarsha I’s military campaigns helped consolidate Rashtrakuta control over the territories secured by his predecessors. His rule was focused on the administrative consolidation of the vast Rashtrakuta empire, which spanned much of northern and central India, as well as parts of the Deccan Plateau.

Amoghavarsha I did not engage in major military campaigns like his predecessors, but his reign saw the strengthening of Rashtrakuta power in the north through strategic alliances and political marriages. He effectively maintained the stability of the empire, ensuring that the territories conquered in the previous decades remained under Rashtrakuta control. His reign is characterized more by cultural and administrative accomplishments rather than military conquest.

The Rashtrakuta Military System and Strategies

The military strength of the Rashtrakutas was based on a well-organized and highly mobile army that included infantry, cavalry, and elephants, which were used to break the lines of the enemy in battles. Their army was known for its strategic use of fortified positions and siege warfare techniques, which helped them in their military campaigns across northern India.

The Rashtrakutas were able to maintain control over such a vast empire due to their efficient administrative system. They established a hierarchical system of governance with regional governors (often from the local nobility) who managed territories on behalf of the emperor. This decentralized system enabled the Rashtrakutas to efficiently govern vast territories, including northern India, while ensuring that military campaigns were well-supported and executed.

Conclusion

The military campaigns of the Rashtrakutas in northern India were a defining aspect of their empire’s expansion and success. From the early victories of Dantidurga to the triumphs of Govinda III and the consolidation under Amoghavarsha I, the Rashtrakutas played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of northern India during the early medieval period. Their battles against the Pratiharas, Palas, and Chalukyas, along with their eventual control of strategic locations such as Kannauj, cemented their legacy as one of the most formidable dynasties in Indian history. While the Rashtrakutas eventually faced challenges from emerging regional powers, their military campaigns remain a testament to their strategic acumen, military organization, and cultural influence.

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruled parts of South India from the eighth to the tenth centuries CE. At its peak, their kingdom encompassed the entire modern state of Karnataka, as well as parts of the current Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Their capital was Malkhed, which was located near Sholapur. Because of their geographical location, the Rashtrakuta Dynasty was involved in alliances and wars with both their northern and southern neighboring kingdoms. The Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s earlier rulers were Hindus, but later rulers were Jains, according to historical records.

Region of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Origin of Rashtrakutas

• Historians have argued about the origins of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• The relationship of medieval Rashtrakutas who ruled in the 6th century to Manyakheta Rashtrakutas who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been disputed.
• Several hypotheses have been advanced to explain their genesis. They do claim to be descended from the Epic-era Yadava family. According to some scholars, they are of the Kshatriya race that gave Maharashtra its name.
• According to popular belief, they were a clan of ancestry officials tasked with governing Rashtrakutas’ provinces. As a result, it was adopted as a surname.
• It is clear, however, that they established their empire over the ruins of the Chalukyas.

Important Rulers of Rashtrakutas

Krishna I (756-774)

• Dantidurga died without a male heir, and his uncle Krishna I (756 – 774 CE) succeeded him.
• When Krishna I routed their erstwhile masters, the Badami Chalukyas, in 757 CE, he effectively ended that dynasty’s rule.
• He grew his kingdom by invading and defeating the Gangas, subjugating the Konkans, and sending his own son to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi and accepting their submission without a fight.
• Krishna I am also culturally significant in Indian history because he was the architect of the magnificent Kailasa Temple of Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage site now).

Govinda II (774-780)

• Govinda II, Krishna I’s eldest son, succeeded him (r. c. 774-780 CE).
• Govinda II’s military exploits include traveling to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom on his father’s orders and assisting a certain Ganga king in regaining the throne from his brother.
• It is unknown how he died, but he was deposed by his younger brother Dhruva Dharavarsha.

Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793)

• The ascension of Dhruva Dharavarsha (r. 780-793 CE) marks the beginning of the Rashtrakutas’ golden age.
• He began his military conquests by punishing all the kings who were friendly to his elder brother, and then ventured into imperial Kannauj and defeated its king.
• Dhruva then defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara Kingdom of Central India and the Pala Kingdom of Eastern India, which was centered around present-day Bengal, and thus began the tripartite struggle for control of India’s main heartland between the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire, the Rashtrakutas, and the Pala Dynasty.
• His other victories included subjugating the Vengi king, who could only ensure peace by marrying his own daughter to Dhruva Dharavarsha.

Govinda III (793-814)

• Govinda III (r. 793-814 CE) succeeded his father Dhruva, and despite ascending to power through a family feud, he quickly proved to be the most powerful emperor of this dynasty militarily.
• Dhruva had successfully moved into North India during his time, but he had not gained many lands.
• Govinda III rectified this by expanding his kingdom from Kannauj to the Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari now) and from the east of India from Banaras, Bengal, and so on to the west of India, primarily to the Gujarat territories.
• He defeated numerous kings and rulers along the way, including the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II, King Dharmapala of the Pala Empire, Pallava Dantivarman, Cholas, Pandya, and several others.

Amoghavarsha I (814-878)

• Amoghavarsha I, the son of Govinda III, was the greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Amoghavarsha I established a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State), and Broach became the best part of the kingdom during his reign.
• Amoghavarsha I was a great supporter of education and literature.
• Amoghavarsha was converted to Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk.
• Suleman, an Arab merchant, described Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the world, along with the Caliph of Bagdad, the King of Constantinople, and the Emperor of China.
• Amoghavarsha ruled for 64 years.

Krishna II (878-914)

• Krishna II (reigned 878–914 CE) succeeded his famous father, Amoghavarsha I Nrupatunga, to the Rashtrakuta throne. Kannara was his Kannada name.
• His queen was Mahadevi, a Haihaya princess from Chedi. According to the chronology of inscriptions that mention the name of this king, Krishna II may have begun to rule even during his father’s lifetime.
• The fact that Amoghavarsha renounced state affairs in his final years to pursue religious pursuits lends credence to this claim.
• Krishna II’s reign saw significant advances in literature, though his reign was mixed in terms of empire expansion.
• During his reign, he cultivated a matrimonial alliance with Chedis in order to gain a military advantage.

Indra III (914-929)

• Indraraja was the son of Jagattunga and Lakshmi, a Kalachuri dynasty princess.
• His coronation took place in Kurundaka, a village near the confluence of the Krishna and Panchganga rivers, rather than in the kingdom’s capital.
• According to a copper plate, Indraraja III destroyed Meru, which was ruled by Pratihara Mahipala. This could be a reference to Mahodaya, a different name for Kanauj.
• During his reign, the author Trivikrama Bhatta published Damayanti Katha and Madalasa Champu.
• Indraraja III died and was succeeded by his elder son, Amoghavarsha II, who died within a year of becoming emperor.

Krishna III (939-967)

• The last great Rashtrakuta Ruler, consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada river to Kaveri and included the Northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.
• He was engaged in a struggle against the Paramars of Malwa and the Eastern Chalukya of Vengi.
• In about 949 CE, he also defeated the Chola king Parantaka I and annexed the northern part of the Chola Empire.
• He then marched towards Rameshwaram and set up a pillar of victory there and also built a temple.

Karka (972-973)

• Karakaraja ascended to the throne shortly after the death of his uncle Khottiga at the hands of the invading Malwa king in C.E 972.
• This demonstrates that the kingdom was not annexed, but rather plundered and destroyed to some extent.
• The Malwa invasion severely weakened the Rashtrakutas, and the Chalukya king Tailapa II took advantage of the opportunity to launch an attack in 973 C.E., completing the destruction begun by Siyaka II of Malwa.
• An inscription by Vijjaya of the Kalachuri dynasty, the Rashtrakutas’ primary feudatory for two centuries, confirms that Karakraja II was killed by Tailapa during the Chalukya invasion.

Administration of Rashtrakutas

• The King was the supreme ruler in the Rashtrakuta system of government. The inscriptions show that the next ruler is chosen on a hereditary basis.
• However, the new emperor’s abilities were also taken into account as he ascended to the throne. The kingdom was divided into provinces, each of which was governed by a ‘Rashtrapati.’
• A district was overseen by a ‘Vishayapati’ under the provinces. The trustworthy ministers ruled over more than one province.
• The district was overseen by a ‘Nadugowda,’ and the lowest division was a village overseen by a ‘Gramapati.’

Literature of Rashtrakutas

• Kannada literature rose to prominence during the Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s reign. The Prakrit and Sanskrit eras came to an end during this time period.
• Court poets produced literary works in Kannada and Sanskrit. ‘Kavirajamarga,’ written by King Amoghavarsha, was the first Kannada book available.
• In the court of King Amoghavarsha I, bilingual writers such as Asaga rose to prominence and noted scholars such as Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics.
• Adipurana was written by the Jain writer Adikavi Pampa, who is widely regarded as one of the most influential Kannada writers.
• Sri Ponna was another notable Jain writer in Kannada, patronized by King Krishna III and best known for Shantipurana, his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara.
• Prose works in Sanskrit were also prolific during this time period.

Art and Architecture of Rashtrakutas

• The rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta in present-day Maharashtra reflect the Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s contributions to art and architecture. They also re-dedicated rock-cut shrines and renovated Buddhist caves.
• At Ellora, Amoghavarsha I dedicated five Jain cave temples. The monolithic Kailashnath Temple is Rashtrakutas’ most spectacular work at Ellora.
• After Rashtrakuta rule had spread to the Deccan, King Krishna I funded this project. Dravidian was the architectural style.
• Ardhanaarishwar and Maheshamurti are two other notable sculptures at Elephanta.
• The Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora, as well as the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai, are two other well-known rock-cut temples in Maharashtra.
• Rashtrakutas built the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.
• The important architecture includes:

Kailasanatha Temple

• The Kailasa temple in Ellora Cave 16 is one of the world’s largest rock-cut temples.
• The temple’s construction began during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga (735-757 AD).
• The temple’s major construction was completed by King Dantidurga’s successor, Krishna I (757-773 AD), though work continued for more than a century under many successive kings.
• It is situated in the Maharashtra town of Ellora. Pallava and Chalukya styles can be seen in the temple architecture.
• The temple grounds contain five detached shrines, three of which are dedicated to the river goddesses Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati.

Kailasanatha Temple

 

Elephanta Caves

• The Elephanta Caves are the focal point of Elephanta Island, which is located in Mumbai Harbour, off the coast of Mumbai (Bombay), India.
• The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.
• The island’s modern name, Elephanta from Gharapuri, was given by the Portuguese.
• The caves date back to the Silhara kings of the ninth to thirteenth centuries (810–1260).
• Some of the site’s sculptures have been attributed to the imperial Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, such as the Trimurti of Elephanta, which depicts Shiva with three faces, similar to the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh, the Rashtrakutas’ royal insignia.

Elephanta Caves

Society and Culture of Rashtrakutas

• The Rashtrakuta Empire’s subjects looked up to their emperor or king as the ultimate authority who was expected to look after them and uphold current social justice, order, and peace.
• For day-to-day matters, however, there were guilds or co-operatives that would settle any disputes according to custom, and if the case could not be resolved, it was brought to the attention of a higher authority.
• These guilds generally followed the prevailing rules and regulations of a specific group or caste, deviating only in exceptional circumstances.
• Society was divided into castes based on profession. The ruling castes had their own set of rules, regulations, and customs that they strictly adhered to. They, too, adhered to ancient orthodoxy.
• However, because the Rashtrakuta rulers were tolerant of all religions, society was generally accepting of adherents of various faiths.

Religion and Language

• Kannada is one of the most important languages in modern India, and it was the Rashtrakutas who popularized it and made it a tool of daily communication, despite the fact that the language had already been in use for a long time.
• They also supported Sanskrit, which was a language of the elite. Amoghavarsha I was instrumental in the creation of seminal works in both languages, and his Kavirajamarga was a watershed moment in Kannada poetry.
• His work in Sanskrit was widely praised and read in other Asian countries.
• According to legend, Amoghavarsha I endorsed Jainism, and as a result, many Jain scholars flourished in his court, including the Jain mathematician Mahavirachariya.
• Adikabi Pampa and Sri Ponna flourished in Kannada and are now regarded as iconic contributors to the language.

Decline of Rashtrakutas

• The Rashtrakutas’ decline began with the reign of Khottiga Amoghavarsha, who was defeated and killed by a Paramara dynasty ruler in 972 CE, with the capital Manyakheta plundered and destroyed, severely denting the dynasty’s prestige.
• Indra IV, the kingdom’s last ruler, committed suicide in 982 CE by performing a Jaina ritual known as Sallekhana, which is a practice of fasting to death.
• The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ended, but their influence endured.
• Parts of their kingdom were annexed by the later Cholas and other dynasties, but their government system and several other cultural practices were adopted by subsequent empires.

Conclusion

The Rashtrakutas established a vast empire and a glorious rule. Rashtrakuta made significant contributions to religion, art, and architecture. They not only conquered the entire south of India but also penetrated deeply into the territories of the north. Many of them were lauded as unbeatable conquerors and effective rulers. The Rashtrakuta dynasty’s reign in the Deccan was perhaps the most brilliant period in its history. No other Deccan ruling dynasties played such a dominant role in Indian history until the rise of the Marathas as an imperial power in the 18th century. Their campaigns against powerful opponents were consistently crowned with brilliant success.

Tripartite Struggle took place between three great Indian dynasties – the Palas, the Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas in 8^th and 9^th centuries for control over the Kannauj area of northern India struggle is also known as the Kannauj Triangle Wars.

The Palas ruled India’s eastern regions (Bengal region), while the Pratiharas oversaw India’s western regions (Avanti-Jalaor region) and the Deccan area of India was dominated by the Rastrakutas. This war lasted for two centuries and was finally won by the Rajput Pratihara emperor Nagabhata II, who established the city as the capital of the Pratihara state, which ruled for nearly three centuries. 

Causes of Tripartite Struggle

• During the early medieval period, Kannauj was seen as a sign of status and authority.
• Kannauj was the former capital of Harshvardhana’s empire and control of it represented the political domination over northern India.
• Control of Kannauj also meant control of the Central Gangetic valley, which was rich in resources and hence strategically and commercially significant.
• Because it was connected to the silk road, this location was ideal for trade and commerce.
• Between the end of the eighth century and the first quarter of the ninth century, three kings ruled over Kannauj: Indrayudha, Vijrayudha, and Chakrayudha.
• These kings were very weak and could be easily defeated.
• The desire to plunder through warfare attracted the Rashtrakutas to Kannauj.

Tripartite Struggle – Phase I

• A tripartite struggle occurred between the Pala, Prathihara, and Rashtrakuta dynasties for control of Kanauj.
• The first phase of the tripartite struggle began around 790 AD with a clash between Dharmapala and Vatsaraja.
• The battle between Dharmapala and the Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayag resulted in the defeat of Dharmapala.
• After some time Vatsaraja was defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
• Dharmapala took control of Kannauj after Vatsaraja’s fall, but he was again defeated by Dhruva.
• Dhruva, on the other hand, was unable to consolidate his victory because he needed to return to the south to save his own kingdom.
• Rashtrakutas were devastated by a succession struggle after Dhruva’s death in 793 CE.
• By quickly withdrawing from Northern India, the Rashtrakutas not only decimated the Palas’ adversaries, the Pratiharas but also provided the Palas with a good opportunity to add to their might.
• Dharmapala took advantage of the situation and recovered Kannauj, putting Chakrayudha on the throne.
• Dharmapala, via a series of successful expeditions, established himself as the lord of virtually all of Northern India.

Tripartite Struggle – Phase II

• Pratihara ruler Nagabhatta II, the successor of Vatsaraja, invaded Kanauj and expelled its ruler Chakrayudha and established control there.
• As Chakrayudha was Dharmapala’s protege, a battle between Nagabhatta II and Dharmapala was inevitable.
• Nagabhatta II defeated Dharmapala in a battle near Munger.
• After Nagabhata II took possession of Kannauj, the battle for the city intensified.
• His victory was short-lived, as he was soon overthrown by Govinda III (Rashtrakuta king), the successor of Dhruva.
• Govinda III left for the Deccan soon after this victory.
• By the end of the 9th century, the Rastrakutas’ power had begun to wane alongside that of the Palas.
• The Pratiharas emerged victoriously and established themselves as the rulers of central India by the end of the tripartite struggle.

Conclusion

The tripartite conflict between the three great Indian dynasties, the Palas, the Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas, for control over the Kannauj area, lasted for two centuries. In the end, Pratiharas emerged victoriously and established themselves as the rulers of central India. However, tripartite struggle rendered all three dynasties feeble. This led to the country’s political breakdown, which aided the Middle Eastern Islamic invaders.

Dharmapala (770–810 CE) was the second emperor of the Pala Empire of Bengal and Bihar. He is one of the greatest rulers of the Pala dynasty, and ranks among the greatest kings in Indian history. He was the son of Gopala. He expanded the empire’s borders significantly and established the Palas as a formidable force in northern and eastern India. His period is known for Tripartite struggle between the three great powers, the Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas. They were constantly at war for imperial suzerainty over northern India and the possession of Kanauj. 

Dharmapala (770-810 CE) – Background

• In around A.D. 770, Dharmapala succeeded Gopala as monarch. He embarked on a plan to expand his empire.
• He was married to Rannadevi, princess of Rashtrakuta.
• He assumed the highest imperial titles of the time, including Paramabhattaraka, Paramesvara, and Maharajadhiraja.
• He assumed the name Vikramasila to show his power or to honour the founding of the Vikramasila monastery.
• During his reign, a tripartite struggle occurred between the Pala, Prathihara, and Rashtrakuta dynasties for control of Kanauj.

Pala Empire During Dhramapala

• Dharmapala ruled for around 40 years and took the Palas kingdom to new heights.
• According to Taranath, Dharmapala’s empire spanned from the Bay of Bengal to Delhi and Jalandhar in the north to Vindhya hills in the south.
• He possessed a significant number of vassal states in the Punjab, the western highlands, Rajputana, Malwa, and Berar on the outskirts of his realm.
• Dharmapala’s ascension to the throne as the most powerful king of the time is a clear sign of the political climate’s shift.
• For a short period of time, there was power transferred from the Pratiharas to the Palas during his tenure.

Battles of Dharmapala

Conquest of Kanauj

• He defeated Kanauj’s king Indrayudha and set his nominee Chakrayudha on the throne and conducted an imperial court in Kannauj.
• This court was attended by the rulers of Bhoja, Matsya, Madra, Kuru, Yadu, Yavana, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kira.
• These kings “bowed down reverently with their diadems shaking” when Chakrayudha was installed on the Kannauj throne.
• The rulers of these regions may have paid tribute to Dharmapala but kept their independence. This shows the dominance of Dharmapala at that time.

Tripartite Battle

• A tripartite struggle occurred between the Pala, Prathihara, and Rashtrakuta dynasties for control of Kanauj.
• A battle fought between Dharmapala and the Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayag resulted in the defeat of Dharmapala.
• After some time Vatsaraja was defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
• Dharmapala took control of Kannauj after Vatsaraja’s fall, but he was again defeated by Dhruva.
• Dhruva soon returned to the south and Dharmapala suffered little loss as a result of this rapid chain of events.
• Rashtrakutas were devastated by a succession struggle after Dhruva’s death in 793 CE.
• Dharmapala took advantage of the situation and recovered Kannauj, putting his nominee Chakrayudha on the throne.
• He ascended to the position of Uttarapathasvamin, the most powerful ruler in North India (“Lord of the North ”).

Art and Architecture During Dharampala

• During Dharmapala, many monasteries and universities were established.
• He renovated the Nalanda university, built the Vikramasila university and Somapura Mahavihara, all of them were Buddhist academic centres.
• Nalanda university became well-known around the world during Pala’s reign.
• Nalanda had about 10,000 students and teachers during this time period, who came from all throughout India, as well as Central Asia, China, Southeast Asia, and Sri Lanka.
• It was one of the largest educational institutions in the world at the time and it provided education in a variety of subjects.
• He also gave the royal income from two hundred nearby villages to cover Nalanda University’s expenses.
• He founded Vikramasila university, this university competed directly with Nalanda University.
• It had over 100 faculty and over 1000 students listed.
• Vikramasila university was well-known for providing specialist Tantra training (Tantrism). Atia Dipankara, a creator of Tibetan Buddhism’s Sharma traditions, was one of the university’s most well-known graduates.
• This university thrived for 400 years until it was destroyed by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji’s soldiers in the year 1200.
• Somapura Mahavihara (now in Bangladesh) university was also founded by Dharmapala in Bengal in the late eighth century, and it flourished for 400 years until the 12th century.
• It was a prominent learning centre for Bauddha Dharma (Buddhism), Jina Dharma (Jainism), and Sanatana Dharma(Hinduism).
• This university had an impact on Buddhist architecture as far as Cambodia.
• It is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Conclusion

Dharmapala (770–810 AD) was one of the greatest rulers of the Pala dynasty and assumed the title of Paramabhattaraka, Paramesvara, and Maharajadhiraja. He enlarged the empire’s borders and made the Palas a powerful force in northern and eastern India. HIs period is known for Tripartite struggle between the three great powers, the Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas. He was a great patron of Buddhism and founded Vikramashila monastery. He was succeeded by Devapala who expanded the Palas empire further.

Mihira Bhoja, often regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the Pratihara dynasty, stands as a towering figure in the history of early medieval India. His reign, which lasted from c. 836–885 CE, marked the zenith of Pratihara power, making him one of the most significant rulers of northern India during the early medieval period. Known for his military prowess, administrative reforms, cultural patronage, and strategic diplomacy, Mihira Bhoja’s legacy played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of the time. His reign not only solidified the dominance of the Pratihara dynasty in northern India but also helped maintain stability and order across a vast region that stretched from the Gangetic plains to Rajasthan, encompassing much of western India.

Rise to Power and Consolidation of the Pratihara Kingdom

Mihira Bhoja ascended to the throne during a time of considerable regional instability in northern India, marked by fragmented kingdoms and competing regional powers. The Pratihara dynasty had already established a foothold in northern India, having successfully repelled the Arab invaders and asserted dominance over the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, but the empire’s territorial control was far from consolidated. When Mihira Bhoja took the throne, his primary task was to defend and expand his kingdom against both internal revolts and external threats. His reign is often considered the period during which the Pratiharas reached the height of their power, securing their position as one of the dominant dynasties in the north.

Mihira Bhoja’s reign saw the Pratiharas reasserting control over Kannauj, the most strategically significant city in northern India, which had been a point of contention in the tripartite struggle between the Rashtrakutas, Palas, and Pratiharas. Under his leadership, the Pratiharas not only maintained their hold over this crucial city but also extended their influence over neighboring territories. Mihira Bhoja’s ability to control such a vast and fragmented region was largely due to his military prowess, as well as his administrative acumen.

Military Achievements and Conquests

Mihira Bhoja’s reign was marked by several notable military campaigns that significantly expanded and solidified the Pratihara territory. His military conquests were not just about territorial expansion, but also about securing his kingdom from internal and external threats. Mihira Bhoja’s campaigns were strategically aimed at countering the threats posed by rival powers such as the Palas to the east, the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, and the growing influence of the Gurjara and other regional forces.

One of his most significant military achievements was his victory over the Rashtrakutas, particularly the Rashtrakuta king, Amoghavarsha I. The Rashtrakutas had been a formidable power in the Deccan and northern India, and their attempts to challenge the Pratiharas’ hold over the Ganga-Yamuna Doab were significant. Mihira Bhoja’s forces are said to have defeated the Rashtrakutas, temporarily limiting their influence in the north and consolidating his hold over northern India.

Mihira Bhoja also engaged in several campaigns against the Palas, a dominant power in eastern India, particularly in Bengal and the Ganges plains. The Palas, under the leadership of Dharmapala and later Devapala, were significant rivals to the Pratihara dynasty. The Pratihara-Pala rivalry was part of the larger tripartite struggle for control over Kannauj, the prize that symbolized dominance over northern India. Mihira Bhoja’s victories against the Palas, particularly in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, were instrumental in ensuring the dominance of the Pratihara dynasty in the region. His military successes against the Palas led to the temporary weakening of their power in northern India, which allowed the Pratihara dynasty to assert greater influence over vast territories.

Mihira Bhoja’s campaigns were also aimed at securing his kingdom against smaller local rulers and consolidating the various territories under his control. His military leadership was instrumental in maintaining the unity of the Pratihara kingdom during a period of constant challenges from competing regional powers. He maintained a large and well-organized army, with elite cavalry, war elephants, and infantry, which played a key role in the successes of his military campaigns.

Cultural Patronage and Administration

Mihira Bhoja’s rule was not only defined by military successes but also by his strong patronage of culture, arts, and religion. His reign is considered one of the high points of Hindu culture in medieval India, and he is credited with the revival and promotion of Brahmanical traditions. Like many rulers of his time, Mihira Bhoja was a devout Vaishnavite Hindu and patronized temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, and other deities. His contributions to the building of temples and the establishment of religious institutions were significant, and his reign saw a flourishing of religious and artistic life.

Mihira Bhoja’s court attracted scholars, poets, and artists, contributing to a period of cultural renaissance in the north. He was also known for his support of Sanskrit literature, and many texts from this period are attributed to his patronage. His reign witnessed the composition of important works of literature and philosophy, especially in the fields of grammar, poetry, and astronomy.

Mihira Bhoja also focused on strengthening the administrative apparatus of the Pratihara kingdom. He is believed to have maintained a highly organized system of governance, ensuring that local administrators were loyal to the central authority. His reign saw the establishment of an efficient bureaucratic system, which enabled him to manage the vast territories of the empire effectively. His administration is often noted for its ability to integrate the diverse regions under Pratihara control, including parts of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat.

Relations with Other Dynasties

Mihira Bhoja’s relations with other dynasties, especially the Palas and the Rashtrakutas, were often characterized by both military conflict and diplomatic maneuvering. While his military campaigns against the Palas were largely successful, there were times when he needed to adopt a more diplomatic approach, engaging in alliances with the Palas against the Rashtrakutas or other common enemies. The diplomatic skills of Mihira Bhoja allowed him to balance the delicate power dynamics between these powerful regional kingdoms.

Despite these occasional alliances, the rivalry between the Pratiharas and the Palas for control over Kannauj remained the central axis of Mihira Bhoja’s foreign policy. His success in securing Kannauj as the Pratihara capital ensured that his dynasty remained a major player in the political and cultural landscape of northern India. However, as his reign progressed, the continuous pressure from the Rashtrakutas and other smaller regional powers made it increasingly difficult to maintain long-term dominance over the northern plains.

Legacy and Decline of the Pratihara Dynasty

Mihira Bhoja’s death marked the beginning of a gradual decline for the Pratihara dynasty. Although he secured the Pratiharas’ position at the height of their power, his successors were unable to maintain the empire’s vast territorial holdings. The internal weaknesses within the empire, including challenges from regional chiefs, the emergence of new powers like the Rajputs, and the resurgence of the Rashtrakutas, contributed to the eventual fragmentation of the Pratihara kingdom.

However, Mihira Bhoja’s legacy as one of the greatest rulers of the Pratihara dynasty remains indelible. His military triumphs against the Rashtrakutas and Palas, his cultural patronage, and his political acumen ensured that the Pratihara dynasty remained a dominant force in northern India during the early medieval period. His reign represents a high point in the history of early medieval India, and he is remembered as a ruler who successfully balanced military strength with cultural development, leaving an enduring mark on the subcontinent’s history.

Conclusion

Mihira Bhoja’s reign as the ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was a period of great military achievement, cultural flourishing, and political consolidation. His successes in both warfare and governance, as well as his support for the arts and religion, established him as one of the most important and influential rulers of medieval India. His ability to hold together a large and diverse empire, while fending off formidable enemies such as the Rashtrakutas and Palas, solidified his legacy as one of the greatest monarchs in Indian history. Despite the eventual decline of the Pratihara dynasty, Mihira Bhoja’s contributions to the Pratihara state and Indian culture remain a significant part of India’s medieval heritage.

Narasimhavarman I was a Pallava dynasty emperor who ruled South India from 630 CE to 668 CE. He shared his father Mahendravarman I’s love of art and finished the work that Mahendravarman had begun in Mamallapuram. During his reign, the famous Pancha Rathas Temple, also known as the Rock Cut Temple and a UNESCO World Heritage site, was built. 

Background

• Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mahamalla or Mamalla, which means “great wrestler.”
• His father started the Pallava-Chalukya conflict, which he successfully continued. He wished to avenge his father’s defeat at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II.
• In three battles, including one in Manimangalam near Kanchi in 642 CE, he defeated Pulakesin II. Pulakesin II died, and Narasimhavarman took the title Vatapikonda (the conqueror of Vatapi).
• Another notable accomplishment of Narasimhanvarman I was his daring expedition to Sri Lanka to re-establish the Sinhalese princes Manavarman.

During Narasimhavarman I’s Reign

• During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchi and observed that, in addition to Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism flourished there.
• He also mentioned that it was the birthplace of the famous Dharmapala, who went on to become the abbot of the great Vihara of Nalanda.
• According to his account, the Kanchi people valued great learning, and Ghatika of Kanchi was a prominent centre of learning.
• He was also a great builder, having built Mamallapuram and the Monolithic Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas) during his reign.

Art & Architecture During His Reign

• Narasimhavarman I had continued and improved his father’s work in the fields of art and architecture.
• At Mamallapuram, his monolithic temples, rock-cut mandapas, and portrait sculptures extol the glory of Pallava art and architecture.
• Narasimhavarman carved cave temples, as did his father Mahendravarman. His temples are more beautiful than his father’s.
• He carved the cave temple at Kudumiyamalai and the Perumal temple at Thirumaiyam near Pudukottai.
• Mamallan was Narasimhan’s title. Because he beautified Kadalmallai, it became known as Mamallapuram. He constructed the Mahishasura Mandabam and the Trinity Gods’ Hall in Mamallapuram. The temples he carved out of separate rocks became known as the Pandavas’ cars.
• He carved puranic stories into the rocks. Among the sculptures, the story of Kannan holding Govardhanagiri as an umbrella and the scene of the Ganga with Arjuna’s penance are the best.
• Among Narasimhavarman’s forts, the ones at Pallavaram near Lalgudi and Kanji were the best. He was given titles such as Mamallan, Sriparan, Srimohan, Srinidhi, Ranajayan, Adhyanthakaman, Ameyamayan, and Badami conqueror (Badami Kodan).
• His contemporaries included Pulikesi II, Vikkramadityan, Durvinedhan, the King of Ganga, and Nedumaran.
• Narasimhan ruled for about 40 years, and he did so successfully and efficiently. He continued his father’s services to the temple despite adhering to Saivism and being tolerant of other religions.

Military Conquests During His Reign

• Narasimhavarman I is said to be one of the few Indian kings who never lost a battle to their adversaries.
• Previously, Pulakeshin II, a Chalukya king, raided various northern Pallava provinces and forts. He was, however, unable to take the Pallava capital of Kanchipuram. This sparked a long war between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas.
• Pulakeshin II attempted to seize the Pallava capital once more, and a second expedition was launched several years later. However, by that time, the Pallava dynasty had passed to Narasimhavarman I.
• Narasimhavarman defeated the Chalukyas in several battles, including one 20 miles east of Kanchipuram at Manimangalam. The king claims to have seen the back of his dreaded enemy as he ripped apart his army.
• Encouraged by this victory, Narasimhavarman led his army and his general Paranjothi into Vatapi, defeating and killing the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II in 642 CE. The city was never again a capital.
• He triumphantly returned to Kanchipuram and was given the title Vatapikondan (one who conquered Vatapi).
• His general, Paranjothi (a Vikrama Kesari, also known as paradurgamarddana), was well known for his devotion to Lord Siva and, as one of the 63 Nayanmar saints, is said to have personally destroyed the city of Vatapi under Narasimhavarman’s command.
• In Sekkizhaar’s work, the 12th tirumurai, this siruttondar is credited with defeating the evil kali as manifested by the Deccan enemy of Pallavas.

Invasion of Sri Lanka

• Manavarma, a Sinhalese prince, lived at Narasimhavarman’s court and had assisted him in defeating his adversary Pulakeshin II.
• In exchange, Narasimhavarman provided Manavarma with an army to invade Sri Lanka twice. The second attack went off without a hitch.
• Manavarma seized control of Sri Lanka, which he is said to have ruled from 691 to 726 CE.
• Narasimhavarman’s conquest of Sri Lanka is referenced on the Kasakudi copper plates. These facts are also confirmed by the Mahavamsa (historical chronicle of Sri Lanka).

Conclusion

Narasimhavarman I was the greatest of the Pallavas, elevating the dynasty’s power and prestige to incredible heights. He was succeeded by Mahendravarman II and then by Parameshwaravarman I, Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha), and others. Later, the Pallava Beemavarman line ruled Kanchi. Nandhivarman, Daudhivarman, Nirupathungan, and Aparajithan were the most important of them.