The Egyptian Civilization, one of the oldest and most remarkable civilizations in human history, thrived along the fertile banks of the River Nile from around 3100 BCE to 332 BCE. Known for its advanced achievements in architecture, governance, art, science, and religion, this civilization laid the foundation for many cultural and technological developments. The geographic advantages of the Nile and the ingenuity of its people made Egypt a dominant force in the ancient world. The following sections delve into the salient features of this great civilization.

Geographic Foundations and the Role of the Nile

The Egyptian Civilization owed much of its success to the River Nile, which provided a source of sustenance and a means of transportation. The Nile’s annual floods enriched the soil, making it fertile for agriculture and supporting the growth of a stable agrarian society.

• The fertile Nile Valley was surrounded by deserts, which acted as natural barriers against invasions, providing security and stability for cultural and political development.
• The phrase “Egypt is the gift of the Nile,” coined by the historian Herodotus, highlights the river’s centrality in the life of ancient Egyptians.

This natural wealth allowed the Egyptians to build surplus resources, leading to advancements in culture, governance, and trade.

Political Organization and Governance

Egyptian political organization was centralized and hierarchical, with the pharaoh at its apex. The pharaoh was considered both a political leader and a divine figure, embodying the will of the gods on Earth.

• The Egyptian state was a theocracy, where the ruler was believed to be a living god, particularly associated with Horus during their lifetime and Osiris after death.
• The pharaoh’s primary responsibilities included maintaining Ma’at, the divine order of the universe, which encompassed justice, harmony, and stability.
• The administrative structure was highly organized, with officials like viziers, priests, and scribes managing the bureaucracy.

This centralized governance enabled the Egyptians to undertake massive projects, including the construction of monumental architecture.

Monumental Architecture and Engineering

Egyptian civilization is best known for its extraordinary architectural achievements, particularly the construction of pyramids, temples, and other monumental structures.

• The Pyramids of Giza, built during the Old Kingdom, are among the most iconic structures in the world. The largest, the Great Pyramid of Khufu, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
• Temples dedicated to gods, such as Karnak and Luxor, showcased intricate carvings, massive columns, and advanced engineering techniques.
• Tombs in the Valley of the Kings, such as the tomb of Tutankhamun, highlight their expertise in funerary architecture.

These constructions not only demonstrated advanced engineering skills but also reflected the Egyptians’ deep religious beliefs and commitment to preserving their legacy.

Religion and Belief Systems

Religion was a cornerstone of Egyptian life, influencing every aspect of society. The Egyptians were polytheistic, worshipping a pantheon of gods and goddesses, each representing natural forces, human emotions, or societal functions.

• Prominent deities included Ra (the sun god), Osiris (god of the afterlife), Isis (goddess of magic and motherhood), and Anubis (god of mummification).
• The Egyptians believed in life after death, which shaped their elaborate burial customs and practices. The Book of the Dead was a guide for navigating the afterlife.
• Temples served not only as places of worship but also as centers of economic activity and administration.

Religion unified the society, providing moral codes and justifications for the pharaoh’s authority.

Social Hierarchy and Daily Life

The Egyptian society was highly stratified, with a rigid social hierarchy.

• At the top was the pharaoh, followed by the nobility, priests, and scribes.
• Artisans, merchants, and soldiers formed the middle class, while the majority of the population consisted of farmers and laborers.
• Slaves were at the bottom of the hierarchy, often employed in construction or domestic work.

Despite this hierarchy, the Nile’s agricultural abundance ensured that even the lower classes had relatively stable lives compared to other ancient civilizations.

Family life was central to Egyptian culture, and women enjoyed more rights and status than in many other ancient societies, with the ability to own property, initiate divorce, and hold positions of power, as seen with queens like Hatshepsut.

Advancements in Science and Medicine

The Egyptians made remarkable contributions to science, mathematics, and medicine, many of which were driven by their religious and architectural needs.

• They developed an advanced understanding of geometry and engineering, essential for constructing pyramids and temples.
• Astronomy played a vital role in the creation of their calendar, which consisted of 365 days, a precursor to the modern calendar.
• In medicine, Egyptians pioneered surgical techniques, herbal remedies, and medical texts such as the Ebers Papyrus, which documented treatments for various ailments.

These advancements not only supported practical needs but also influenced later civilizations, such as the Greeks and Romans.

Art and Literature

Egyptian art and literature were highly symbolic and deeply connected to their religious beliefs.

• Egyptian art emphasized order, symmetry, and proportion, often depicting pharaohs, gods, and daily life in vibrant colors and stylized forms.
• Hieroglyphics, their writing system, combined pictorial symbols and phonetic elements. These were inscribed on temple walls, tombs, and papyrus scrolls.
• Literary works, such as The Tale of Sinuhe and The Instruction of Ptahhotep, reveal insights into their moral philosophy, societal norms, and values.

The arts served as a means of documenting history and expressing religious devotion.

Economic System and Trade

The Egyptian economy was primarily agrarian, centered around the cultivation of wheat, barley, and flax. Surplus production enabled trade and supported the state’s wealth.

• The Egyptians traded extensively with neighboring regions, including Nubia, the Levant, and Mesopotamia, exchanging goods such as gold, papyrus, and linen for cedarwood, ivory, and incense.
• The state controlled key resources, such as mines, quarries, and granaries, ensuring a steady flow of wealth.

This economic stability was a key factor in sustaining the civilization for thousands of years.

Military Organization

While not as militaristic as some other ancient civilizations, Egypt maintained a strong military to defend its borders and expand its influence.

• The military employed chariots, archers, and infantry and benefited from advanced weapons made of bronze and iron.
• Pharaohs like Thutmose III and Ramses II led successful campaigns, expanding Egyptian territory into Nubia, Syria, and Palestine.
• Military successes were often commemorated in temples and monuments.

The military also played a role in maintaining internal stability and protecting the economic resources of the state.

Legacy of the Egyptian Civilization

The Egyptian Civilization left an enduring legacy that influenced subsequent cultures and societies.

• Their advancements in architecture, art, and writing inspired later civilizations such as the Greeks and Romans.
• The study of mummies and tombs has provided invaluable insights into ancient medical practices and religious beliefs.
• The preservation of monuments like the Sphinx and the pyramids continues to captivate the world, serving as symbols of human ingenuity and resilience.

Conclusion

The Egyptian Civilization was a beacon of cultural, political, and technological achievements. Its unique blend of geographic advantages, centralized governance, and a deeply ingrained belief system allowed it to flourish for millennia. The contributions of this civilization in fields such as architecture, science, religion, and art continue to be celebrated and studied, underscoring its profound impact on human history.

The ancient Egyptians made remarkable achievements in the fields of art and literature, laying the foundation for many of the aesthetic, cultural, and intellectual traditions that have influenced civilizations across history. Their artistic and literary contributions reflect their deep religiosity, social hierarchy, and a profound understanding of the natural and spiritual world.

Achievements in Art

Egyptian art is renowned for its symbolism, sophistication, and adherence to strict conventions, which were guided by religious and cultural beliefs. The primary purpose of Egyptian art was to honor the gods, glorify the pharaohs, and ensure the deceased’s journey to the afterlife.

Monumental Architecture and Sculpture: The Egyptians excelled in monumental architecture, producing structures like the pyramids of Giza, the Sphinx, and the temples of Karnak and Luxor. These works were not just feats of engineering but also artistic masterpieces that conveyed power, divine authority, and cosmic order. Colossal statues, such as those of Ramses II at Abu Simbel, demonstrated their expertise in carving and proportion, achieving both grandeur and intricate detail.

Reliefs and Paintings: Wall reliefs and paintings adorned the interiors of tombs and temples, depicting scenes of daily life, religious rituals, and mythology. Artists followed a strict canon of proportions, ensuring that human figures were represented in a stylized manner, with heads and legs in profile but torsos facing forward. This technique conveyed both individuality and universal ideals. Colors were symbolic, with green signifying fertility and rebirth, and gold representing divinity and eternity.

Jewelry and Decorative Arts: Egyptians were also skilled in crafting jewelry and decorative items using materials like gold, turquoise, lapis lazuli, and faience. These pieces were not only beautiful but also imbued with religious and magical significance, often serving as amulets to protect the wearer.

Mathematical Precision: Their art incorporated mathematical precision, as seen in the Golden Ratio used in the design of temples and sculptures, ensuring harmony and balance.

Achievements in Literature

Egyptian literature is among the oldest in the world, comprising religious texts, myths, poetry, wisdom literature, and historical records. The Egyptians wrote primarily on papyrus scrolls, walls, and stelae, using scripts like hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic.

Religious Texts: The Egyptians’ literary achievements were deeply tied to their religion. Texts such as the Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and the Book of the Dead were composed to ensure the deceased’s safe passage to the afterlife. These works contain hymns, prayers, and spells, reflecting the Egyptians’ belief in immortality and cosmic order.

Mythological Narratives: Egyptian mythology was a cornerstone of their literary tradition. Stories like the Osiris Myth—detailing Osiris’s death and resurrection—illustrated themes of justice, renewal, and divine kingship. These narratives were often depicted in temples and tombs, underscoring their importance to Egyptian identity.

Wisdom Literature: The Egyptians produced extensive didactic texts that offered moral and practical advice. Works such as the Instructions of Ptahhotep and the Maxims of Amenemope provided guidance on living a virtuous and successful life, emphasizing values like justice, humility, and piety. These texts influenced later traditions, including Biblical literature.

Historical and Autobiographical Texts: Egyptian literature included historical inscriptions and autobiographies carved on tomb walls and stelae. These records, such as the Victory Stele of Merneptah or the autobiographical inscriptions of officials, served to commemorate achievements and reinforce the pharaoh’s divine right to rule.

Secular and Entertainment Literature: The Egyptians also enjoyed storytelling for entertainment. Tales like The Story of Sinuhe and The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor combined adventure, morality, and philosophical musings. These works reveal a sophisticated narrative tradition and offer insights into the human condition and societal values.

Legacy

The artistic and literary achievements of the Egyptians had a profound influence on subsequent civilizations, including the Greeks and Romans. Their art set a standard for symbolism and idealized representation, while their literature preserved a wealth of knowledge, spiritual insight, and cultural heritage. Through these contributions, the Egyptians not only immortalized their own civilization but also enriched the collective human experience.

The religion of Ancient Egypt lasted for more than 3,000 years, and was polytheistic, meaning there were a multitude of deities, who were believed to reside within and control the forces of nature. Religious practices were deeply embedded in the lives of Egyptians, as they attempted to provide for their gods and win their favor. The complexity of the religion was evident as some deities existed in different manifestations and had multiple mythological roles. The pantheon included gods with major roles in the universe, minor deities (or “demons”), foreign gods, and sometimes humans, including deceased Pharaohs.

Formal religious practice centered on the pharaoh, or ruler, of Egypt, who was believed to be divine, and acted as intermediary between the people and the gods. His role was to sustain the gods so that they could maintain order in the universe, and the state spent its resources generously to build temples and provide for rituals. The pharaoh was associated with Horus (and later Amun) and seen as the son of Ra. Upon death, the pharaoh was fully deified, directly identified with Ra and associated with Osiris, the god of death and rebirth. However, individuals could appeal directly to the gods for personal purposes through prayer or requests for magic; as the pharaoh’s power declined, this personal form of practice became stronger. Popular religious practice also involved ceremonies around birth and naming. The people also invoked “magic” (called heka) to make things happen using natural forces.

Cosmology

The Egyptian universe centered on Ma’at, which has several meanings in English, including truth, justice and order. It was fixed and eternal (without it the world would fall apart), and there were constant threats of disorder requiring society to work to maintain it. Inhabitants of the cosmos included the gods, the spirits of deceased humans, and living humans, the most important of which was the pharaoh. Humans should cooperate to achieve this, and gods should function in balance. Ma’at was renewed by periodic events, such as the annual Nile flood, which echoed the original creation. Most important of these was the daily journey of the sun god Ra.

Egyptians saw the earth as flat land (the god Geb), over which arched the sky (goddess Nut); they were separated by Shu, the god of air. Underneath the earth was a parallel underworld and undersky, and beyond the skies lay Nu, the chaos before creation. Duat was a mysterious area associated with death and rebirth, and each day Ra passed through Duat after traveling over the earth during the day.

Myths

Egyptian myths are mainly known from hymns, ritual and magical texts,  funerary texts, and the writings of Greeks and Romans. The creation myth saw the world as emerging as a dry space in the primordial ocean of chaos, marked by the first rising of Ra. Other forms of the myth saw the primordial god Atum transforming into the elements of the world, and the creative speech of the intellectual god Ptah.

The most important myth was of Osiris and Isis. The divine ruler Osiris was murdered by Set (god of chaos), then resurrected by his sister and wife Isis to conceive an heir, Horus. Osiris then became the ruler of the dead, while Horus eventually avenged his father and became king. This myth set the Pharaohs, and their succession, as orderliness against chaos.

The Afterlife

Egyptians were very concerned about the fate of their souls after death, and built tombs, created grave goods and gave offerings to preserve the bodies and spirits of the dead. They believed humans possessed ka, or life-force, which left the body at death. To endure after death, the ka must continue to receive offerings of food; it could consume the spiritual essence of it. Humans also possessed a ba, a set of spiritual characteristics unique to each person, which remained in the body after death. Funeral rites were meant to release the ba so it could move, rejoin with the ka, and live on as an akh. However, the ba returned to the body at night, so the body must be preserved.

Mummification involved elaborate embalming practices, and wrapping in cloth, along with various rites, including the Opening of the Mouth ceremony. Tombs were originally mastabas (rectangular brick structures), and then pyramids.

However, this originally did not apply to the common person: they passed into a dark, bleak realm that was the opposite of life. Nobles did receive tombs and grave gifts from the pharaoh. Eventually, by about 2181 BCE, Egyptians began to believe every person had a ba and could access the afterlife. By the New Kingdom, the soul had to face dangers in the Duat before having a final judgment, called the Weighing of the Heart, where the gods compared the actions of the deceased while alive to Ma’at, to see if they were worthy. If so, the ka and ba were united into an akh, which then either traveled to the lush underworld, or traveled with Ra on his daily journey, or even returned to the world of the living to carry out magic.

Rise and Fall of Gods

Certain gods gained a primary status over time, and then fell as other gods overtook them. These included the sun god Ra, the creator god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis. There was even a period of time where Egypt was monotheistic, under Pharaoh Akhenaten, and his patron god Aten.

The Relationships of Deities

Just as the forces of nature had complex interrelationships, so did Egyptian deities. Minor deities might be linked, or deities might come together based on the meaning of numbers in Egyptian mythology (i.e., pairs represented duality). Deities might also be linked through syncretism, creating a composite deity.

Artistic Depictions of Gods

Artistic depictions of gods were not literal representations, since their true nature was considered mysterious. However, symbolic imagery was used to indicate this nature. An example was Anubis, a funerary god, who was shown as a jackal to counter its traditional meaning as a scavenger, and create protection for the mummy.

Temples

Temples were the state’s method of sustaining the gods, as their physical images were housed and cared for; they were not a place for the average person to worship. They were both mortuary temples to serve deceased pharaohs and temples for patron gods. Starting as simple structures, they grew more elaborate, and were increasingly built from stone, with a common plan. Ritual duties were normally carried out by priests, or government officials serving in the role. In the New Kingdom, professional priesthood became common, and their wealth rivaled that of the pharaoh.

Rituals and Festivals

Aside from numerous temple rituals, including the morning offering ceremony and re-enactments of myths, there were coronation ceremonies and the sed festival, a renewal of the pharaoh’s strength during his reign. The Opet Festival at Karnak involved a procession carrying the god’s image to visit other significant sites.

Animal Worship

At many sites, Egyptians worshipped specific animals that they believed to be manifestations of deities. Examples include the Apis bull (of the god Ptah), and mummified cats and other animals.

Use of Oracles

Commoners and pharaohs asked questions of oracles, and answers could even be used during the New Kingdom to settle legal disputes. This might involve asking a question while a divine image was being carried, and interpreting movement, or drawing lots.

The Pyramid Age, also known as the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2686–2181 BCE), was a transformative period in ancient Egyptian history. This era is characterized by the construction of monumental pyramids, advancements in administrative systems, a flourishing economy, and significant cultural achievements. The period is often regarded as the golden age of pyramid construction, reflecting the consolidation of centralized power under a strong monarchy and a highly organized society.

Political and Administrative Structure

The Pyramid Age was marked by the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, which laid the foundation for a centralized state under the rule of the pharaohs. The pharaohs were considered divine rulers, intermediaries between the gods and the people, and their authority was absolute. This divine kingship was reinforced by elaborate rituals, monumental architecture, and a well-developed administrative system.

The government was highly organized, with a vizier serving as the pharaoh’s chief administrator. The vizier oversaw the collection of taxes, supervision of building projects, and maintenance of law and order. Local governors, or nomarchs, managed Egypt’s various provinces, known as nomes, ensuring the smooth functioning of the kingdom’s extensive bureaucracy.

Monumental Architecture and the Pyramids

The Old Kingdom is most famously associated with the construction of the pyramids, which served as tombs for the pharaohs and demonstrated their power, wealth, and divine status. These monumental structures were part of vast funerary complexes, including temples and causeways.

The Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara, built by the architect Imhotep during the Third Dynasty, was the first monumental stone structure in Egypt. It marked a significant evolution in architectural techniques and the concept of royal tombs. This innovation paved the way for the pyramids of Giza, constructed during the Fourth Dynasty by the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. The Great Pyramid of Khufu, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, remains a testament to the Egyptians’ engineering skills and organizational capabilities.

These massive projects required a large, skilled labor force, with workers including architects, engineers, masons, and laborers. Contrary to earlier beliefs, evidence suggests that the pyramid builders were not slaves but paid workers, provided with food, lodging, and medical care. The construction of pyramids demonstrated the state’s ability to mobilize resources on an unprecedented scale.

Religion and Belief System

Religion played a central role in the Pyramid Age. The Egyptians believed in a complex pantheon of gods, with the pharaoh acting as the earthly representative of gods like Ra, the sun god, and Osiris, the god of the afterlife. This belief system deeply influenced every aspect of life, including governance, art, and burial practices.

The construction of pyramids reflected the Egyptians’ belief in the afterlife and the need to ensure the pharaoh’s eternal journey. These tombs were filled with grave goods, statues, and texts like the Pyramid Texts, which provided the deceased with guidance and protection in the afterlife. The emphasis on the afterlife also led to advancements in embalming techniques and the development of funerary rituals.

Economy and Society

The Old Kingdom’s economy was largely agrarian, relying on the Nile River for irrigation and agriculture. The annual flooding of the Nile deposited fertile silt, ensuring abundant harvests of crops like wheat and barley. Surplus food production supported the growing population and the labor force needed for state projects.

Trade flourished during the Pyramid Age, with Egypt engaging in exchanges with regions such as Nubia, the Levant, and Punt. These trade relationships brought in valuable resources, including gold, ebony, incense, and exotic animals, which were used in temples and royal courts. Domestically, the state maintained control over key industries, such as stone quarrying and metalworking, ensuring a steady supply of materials for its monumental projects.

Egyptian society during this period was hierarchical, with the pharaoh at the top, followed by the priesthood, nobles, scribes, artisans, and laborers. Social mobility was limited, but skilled workers, especially scribes, could achieve higher status due to their education and expertise.

Art and Culture

Art and culture flourished during the Pyramid Age, reflecting the Egyptians’ religious beliefs and social structure. The art of this period adhered to strict conventions, emphasizing symmetry, balance, and idealized representations. Statues and reliefs of the pharaohs and gods were created to convey eternal strength and divine power, while tomb paintings depicted scenes of daily life, ensuring continuity in the afterlife.

The period also saw advancements in hieroglyphic writing, which was used for religious texts, administrative records, and monumental inscriptions. The development of writing facilitated the centralization of power and the administration of the kingdom.

Decline of the Old Kingdom

The Pyramid Age began to decline during the Sixth Dynasty due to a combination of factors, including economic strain, internal conflict, and climatic changes that affected the Nile’s flooding patterns. The increasing power of the nomarchs weakened the central authority, leading to the eventual collapse of the Old Kingdom and the onset of the First Intermediate Period.

Legacy

The achievements of the Pyramid Age left an indelible mark on Egyptian civilization. The monumental architecture, religious practices, and administrative innovations of this period became a template for later dynasties. The legacy of the Pyramid Age endures as a testament to the ingenuity, resourcefulness, and ambition of ancient Egypt.

The method of writing, literature, art, architecture, religion, science of the Egyptians had compelled the people of the world to raise their eyebrows.

Art of Writing

To express the thinking of their mind, the Egyptians invented art of writing. Although from the very beginning they were not acquainted with the alphabets, still then they were able to express their idea through different pictures. So, their writing was popularly known as ‘Hieroglyphy’ or ‘sacred writing’ because those were written by the priests.

At first, the Egyptians used pictures and then they used around 2000 pictographic signs. In due course of time their number was reduced and limited to 700 only. At last they invented 24 alphabets. They engraved those alphabets on stone. The ‘Rosetta Stone’ preserved in the British Museum in London is its classic example. Later on the Egyptians used pen and paper

Paper, pen, ink and inkpot

On the banks of Nile, a plant named ‘Papyrus’ was plentily available. The leaves of Papyrus tree were joined through gum and the long roll was prepared. By polish such rolls were glazed. In a Papyrus roll of twenty to forty feet length and five to ten inches breadth the Egyptian wrote their idea. The modem name ‘Paper’, perhaps, has been derived from the term ‘Papyrus’.

They took juice of plants and prepared ‘ink’ by mixing gum and water with it. In several cases they also prepared ink by missing gum with black particles found from kitchen house or lamps.

They sharpened the edge of the steam of a plant and prepared ‘reed pen’. By dipping the pen inside the ‘ink pot’ they wrote on Papyrus. At last, pieces of Papyrus were rolled and preserved inside the earthen pots. Writing was indeed a noble invention of the Egyptians.

Literature

The ancient Egyptians had created immortal literature. They composed literature concerning astrology, metallurgy, weaving and cooking. Besides, they also reflected legends, adventures, thrilling experiences, religious thought etc. in their literature. Among their prose writings, ‘The tale of two brothers’, ‘The tale of Sinuhi’, ‘The legend of the doomed prince’ and ‘The story of the ship-wrecked Sailor’ were very famous. Their religious literature contained books like ‘The Pyramid Text’, ‘The Coffin Text’, ‘The Book of the dead’, ‘A dialogue between the disgusted Man and his soul’, ‘The Maxims of Ptahotep’ and ‘Hymn to Aton’ (written by Akhnaton).

Science: Calendar

The ancient Egyptians were very good astronomers of their time. Looking at the cloudless clear blue sky, they could predict about the solar and lunar eclipse, flood in the river Nile, time of sowing seeds etc. They could also know about the movement of Planets and Stars. They had prepared a ‘Calendar’.

They divided a year into 360 days and 12 months, each month consisting of 30 days. Each day was divided into 24 hours or two parts and each part consisting of 12 hours. At the end of every year, they added 5 days more only to be spent in feast and merrymaking. Julius Caesor had adopted this Calendar Pope Gregory XIII adopted this calendar with a little modification. The Egyptian Calendar is the first recorded event of human history.

Mathematics and Geometry

The ancient Egyptians exhibited their talent in the field of ‘Mathematics’ and ‘Geometry’. They were very efficient in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. They had acquired knowledge in triangle, quadrangle, square, rectangle etc. for measuring the land.

They utilised their mathematical and geometrical knowledge in building the Pyramids. The oldest treatise on Mathematics ‘Ahmes Papyrus’ has been found from Egypt which speaks the high mathematical and geometrical knowledge of the ancient Egyptians.

Medical Science

The Egyptians acquired deep knowledge in medical science. From their old library two books concerning medical science have been discovered. Edwin Smith has translated these books. From that translation it is known that the Egyptians knew about different diseases and also knew how to cure them.

They had idea regarding surgery. They could also preserve dead bodies by applying chemicals. The physicians of Egypt also knew the use of castor oil. It will not be wrong if the Egyptians are termed as the ‘Father of Medical science’.

Art and architecture: Pyramid

The Egyptians have immortalised their name in the annals of history due to their art and architecture. Pyramid is the classic example of it. The tomb of the Egyptian Pharaoh is known as Pyramid. The people of Egypt believed that after death, the soul returns back to the body. So they preserved the dead body of the Pharaoh by applying chemicals in it. This preserved body of the Pharaoh was known a ‘Mummy’. It was covered with cloth and kept inside a coffin.

That coffin was again kept inside a stone box named as Sarcophagus which contained small holes. The Egyptians believed that the soul can again enter into that body through these holes. That box was placed inside a room in the middle of the Pyramid. In the walls of that room the life history of the Pharaoh was written.

The wife of the Pharaoh, his servants and slaves were killed and kept inside the room with food, water, cloth and jewels. It was believed that the soul could recognise these things and again return back to the dead body of the Pharaoh. By covering this room, the tomb of Pharaoh or Pyramid was built by stone, bricks and limestone. It has been rightly told regarding the Pyramid that “All the world fears time, but time fears the Pyramids”.

Among the Pyramids of Egypt, the Pyramid built by Pharaoh Josher at Sakara is the oldest. The famous and largest Pyramid of Khufu was built at Gizeh. This is regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. This 481 feet Pyramid is built over 13 acres of land. 2,300,000 pieces of stones were used in it.

The weight of each piece of stone is 2.5 tons. Nearly twenty years were spent for building this Pyramid. In fact, Pyramid immortalises the Egyptians in the annals of world history.

Temple

Temples were another classic example of the Egyptian architecture. The Pharaohs built temples to please gods and goddesses. The Karnak temple at Thebes is world famous. This is the largest temple of Egypt. Its length is around two kilometres. This temple rests on 12 pillars, each having 79 feet height.

The temple walls are filled up with the war scene and achievements of the Pharaohs and its top, with hieroglyphic writings. This temple was meant for the worship of Amon-Ra or Sun-god. The temples at Luxor and Abu Simbel were also very nice.

Sculpture

The ancient Egyptians were skilled sculptors. Among their Sculptures, Sphinx was very famous. This gigantic stone statue is a remarkable sculpture having the body of a lion with human head. The Great Sphinx stands at the doorstep of the biggest Pyramid at Gizeh. It represents the head of Pharaoh Khafare of Amenhotep III. Its grave facial appearance and a ray of laughter make it unintelligible before the viewers. Besides the Sphincs, the Egyptians built huge images. The great statues of

Amenhotep III at Luxor, Ramesis III, his queen and family deity Amon- Ra at Abu Simbel are regarded as great statues of the world. Innumerable statues, animals, birds, ivory, wood and terracotta testify to the fact that the ancient Egyptians were skilled sculptors.

Religion

Religion played a vital role in the life of the Egyptians. From the beginning they believed in Polytheism They worshipped around 2200 gods and goddesses. They attached divinity in creatures and worshipped them. Their crocodile god was famous as ‘Sibek’. The cat god was called ‘Pashat’ and jackle god was named as ‘Anubis’.

The Egyptians regarded ‘Ra’ as the God of the universe. His son ‘Osiris’ was famous as the ‘Lord of Egypt’ and also as Justice of the departed soul. His wife ‘Isis’ was the goddess of fertile soil. ‘Horas’, the son of Osiris was the god of poor and destitute. There was an influential community of priests in Egypt to worship these gods and goddesses.

Pharaoh Akhnaton or Amenhotep IV brought a revolutionary change in the field of religion. He introduced ‘Monotheism’ in Egypt. He proclaimed that there was only one God and he is ‘Aton’ or ‘Sun-god’. The priests of Egypt had described ‘Ra’ or ‘Amon-Ra’ as a dreadful god. However, Akhnoton declared ‘Aton’ as omniscient, kind, father-like and an incarnation of mercy.

He further told that Aton had made the world beautiful and created mankind. He prohibited the worship of ‘Amon- Ra’ in Karnak and Luxor and introduced the offers like fruits in vegetables of animal sacrifice. That is why the priests considered him as their enemy. His wife Nefertiti helped him in the glorification of monotheism.

After Akhnaton his son-in-law Tutankhamen also popularised monotheism in Egypt. After him, polytheism was again introduced in Egypt. The ancient-Egyptians also believed in life after death. That is why they built Pyramid. Osiris was sending a man to heaven or hell after judgement. The Egyptians also believed in deeds. The result of good deeds led a human being to heaven and bad deeds, to hell.

Philosophy

The ancient Egyptians had also attained celebrity in the field of Philosophy. Ptahotep was the greatest philosopher of that time. He was the provincial ruler of Memphis. In his famous book entitled ‘Instructions to Ptahotep’ he had given many advices for regulating the life. Much before Confucious, Socrates and Buddha Ptahotep had discussed the philosophy of life.

Postal Service

The people of ancient Egypt were aware about the postal system. The study of Papyrus leads historians to believe that the people of that land were sending message. In an ancient Papyrus it has been written— “Write me through the bearer of the letter”. This conclusively proves that the Egyptians were well aware about the postal service. It will not be wrong if the ancient Egyptians are described as “The father of modern postal service”.

Historiography

The Egyptians were the father of ‘Historiography’. The historians accompanied the Pharaoes to the battle field and recorded their achievements. The ‘Rosetta stone’ is its classic example. By deciphering it the French palaeographer Champollion had discerned many facts regarding the Egyptian civilisation. The history of different royal dynasties is known due to this historiography. Thus, the ancient Egyptians were trend setters of history writing.

Agriculture and Irrigation

In the field of agriculture the Egyptians also excelled. They were skilled agriculturists. They had invented plough and hoe. By a device called ‘Shadur they could carry the water of Nile to the canals which helped in irrigation. The chief crops grown by them were wheat, barley flax. They also produced fruits like orange, date-palm, melon etc.

Navigation, Trade and Commerce

The Egyptians first used boat in case of trade and commerce. Egypt became a centre of trade in the entire Mediterranean region. In due course of time, they established trade relation with Nubiya, Sudan Janjibar, Persia, Crate and Phonesia. They exported ivory, gold, the feather of Ostrich and slaves.

They imported cattle, fish and wine from Asia; Precious red stones from Persia and copper from Senai. By utilising navy for the first time, the Egyptians have enriched the human civilisation.

Craftsmanship

The Egyptians were also expert in craftsmanship. They knew the art of melting together copper with tin to make bronze. They made brick, cement and plaster of Paris. They also manufactured glazed pottery and coloured glass. They were also apt in the carving of wood. From Papyrus plants they made ropes, mats and sandals. The Egyptian workmen developed the art of enamelling and varnishing. Thus, their skilled craftsmanship was widely recognised in the world.

System of Administration

The Pharaoes of Egypt were administrations of superb calibre. They were very powerful. They commanded respect from their subjects. In many cases divinity was attached to the Pharaoes. They discharged efficient administration due to the help of ministers, provincial administrators and royal officers. This efficient administration was recognised all over the world.

Infact, the contribution of Egyptians to human civilisation was immense. Egypt, the ‘land of Pyramid’ allured the attention of millions due to its splendid art and architecture. In the field of writing, religion, science, administration trade and commerce etc. the ancient Egyptians had left their indelible marks on the sea shore of time.

The statement “Egyptians were the most religious people in the ancient world” aptly captures the profound role religion played in shaping every aspect of ancient Egyptian life. The Egyptians’ worldview was deeply rooted in their belief in the divine order of the universe, known as Maat, which symbolized truth, balance, and cosmic harmony. This belief system permeated their governance, art, culture, and daily practices, making religion a central and defining characteristic of their civilization.

Centrality of Religion in Governance

Religion was inextricably linked to the Egyptian state, with the pharaoh acting as both a political and religious leader. The pharaoh was considered a living god, the earthly manifestation of deities such as Horus and the son of Ra, the sun god. This divine kingship legitimized the pharaoh’s authority, ensuring obedience from the population. Every aspect of governance, from laws to monumental constructions, was seen as an act of preserving Maat, reinforcing the Egyptians’ belief that their king’s divine connection maintained cosmic and social stability.

The construction of massive temples, such as those dedicated to Amun-Ra at Karnak and Horus at Edfu, exemplified the integration of religion into state functions. These temples were not merely places of worship but also centers of economic activity and administration, underscoring the pervasive influence of religion.

Complex Pantheon of Gods

The Egyptians worshiped a polytheistic pantheon of gods, each associated with specific aspects of life, nature, and the cosmos. Major deities included Ra, the sun god; Osiris, the god of the afterlife; Isis, the goddess of motherhood and magic; and Anubis, the god of mummification. These gods were believed to interact with humanity, influencing everything from the flooding of the Nile to personal health and fortune.

Religion in Egypt was not static but evolved over time. For instance, during the New Kingdom, the cult of Amun-Ra became increasingly dominant, reflecting shifts in political power and theological emphasis. This adaptability ensured the enduring relevance of religion throughout Egypt’s long history.

Role of Temples and Priests

Temples were the focal points of Egyptian religious life, serving as houses of the gods where rituals were performed daily to honor the deities. The primary purpose of these rituals was to maintain Maat by ensuring the gods’ favor and continued protection of the land.

Priests played a crucial role in this process. They acted as intermediaries between humans and the divine, performing complex ceremonies, offering sacrifices, and reciting hymns and prayers. The priesthood was a highly organized institution, with ranks and roles that mirrored the hierarchy of the broader society. Temples also amassed great wealth and functioned as economic hubs, owning vast tracts of land and employing large numbers of people.

Belief in the Afterlife

The Egyptians’ belief in the afterlife was one of the most defining aspects of their religion. They envisioned a life after death that mirrored earthly existence but was free from suffering and decay. The journey to the afterlife, however, required adherence to specific religious practices and moral conduct during life.

The process of mummification was central to this belief. The preservation of the body was seen as essential for the soul’s survival and its reunification with the Ka (vital essence) and Ba (personality) in the afterlife. Tombs were furnished with elaborate goods, amulets, and texts like the Book of the Dead, which contained spells and instructions to guide the deceased through the perilous journey to the Field of Reeds, their eternal paradise.

Pyramids, such as those at Giza, and later rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings, reflected this religious obsession with ensuring the pharaoh’s safe passage to the afterlife. These monumental tombs were designed not only as eternal resting places but also as spiritual gateways connecting the earthly and divine realms.

Daily Life and Popular Religion

Religion was not confined to temples or the elite but was deeply embedded in the daily lives of ordinary Egyptians. Families maintained household shrines, where they worshiped gods and ancestral spirits. Personal piety was expressed through offerings, prayers, and the wearing of amulets for protection against evil forces.

Festivals provided opportunities for communal worship and celebration. Events like the Opet Festival in Thebes or the Beautiful Festival of the Valley were grand religious occasions that involved processions, feasting, and rituals aimed at renewing cosmic and social order.

Symbolism and Artistic Expression

Religious symbolism permeated Egyptian art and architecture. Statues, reliefs, and paintings were created not merely for aesthetic purposes but to serve as spiritual tools. Images of gods and pharaohs, inscribed with sacred texts, were believed to channel divine power, ensuring protection and prosperity.

The use of specific colors and materials in art carried religious significance. Gold, for instance, symbolized the flesh of the gods and was used extensively in funerary objects such as the famous mask of Tutankhamun. Similarly, the alignment of temples and pyramids with celestial events, such as the rising of the sun, reflected the Egyptians’ deep astronomical knowledge and its integration into their religious practices.

Challenges to and Adaptations of Religion

Despite its enduring nature, Egyptian religion faced challenges, particularly during periods of political instability. The brief monotheistic revolution under Akhenaten, who elevated the sun disk Aten above all other gods, disrupted traditional religious practices but failed to dismantle them permanently. After Akhenaten’s reign, traditional polytheism was restored, demonstrating the resilience of Egypt’s religious traditions.

Legacy

The religious practices of the ancient Egyptians influenced neighboring cultures, including the Greeks and Romans, and left an enduring legacy in the fields of art, architecture, and spirituality. Their profound commitment to religion as a guiding force in life and governance earned them the reputation of being among the most religious people in the ancient world. Their belief in cosmic order, the afterlife, and divine interaction continues to captivate and inspire to this day.

The ancient Egyptian civilisation flourished in Africa on the river bank of Nile.

The bank of Nile was overflowed due to flood in that river which created fertility of the soil.

The fertility of soil helped in ample production of crops which sustained the life of the people of that land and contributed to the growth of socio-politico-economic and cultural life of the Egyptians.

That is why Herodotus, the ‘Father of history’ had rightly said Egypt as “the gift of the Nile”. For a long time the world was unaware about this civilisation. Rosetta, an engineer who accompanied Napoleon in his Egyptian campaign discovered a stone from the river bank of Nile.

The French Palaeographer Champollion was able to decipher the Egyptian scripts engraved on this ‘Rosetta Stone’ and to read its Greek translation. After that, the world knew about this flourishing ancient Egyptian Civilisation.

Location of Egypt

Egypt is located in the North-Eastern part of Africa. River Nile flows throw it and falls in the Mediterranean Sea. That is why habitation became possible on the river banks of Nile. The Arabian Sea is situated in the east of Egypt and in the west, lies the great Sahara desert. This natural surrounding kept Egypt free for a long time from the outside world. Thus, grew up a unique civilisation on the river banks of Egypt.

Foundation of Empire

The historians are not able to say exactly when people began to settle in Egypt. It is presumed that around 5000 B.C. the people of that land left their life as wanderer and settled together making agriculture as their sole profession. With the progress of time, the people of Egypt founded two kingdoms.

The kingdom established on the delta of river Nile was known as ‘Lower Egypt’ and its counterpart towards its south was famous as ‘Upper Egypt’. However, around 3400 B.C. Pharaoh Menes united these two kingdoms. Hence Egypt was ruled by one king. The ruler of Egypt is known as ‘Pharaoh’. The term ‘Pharaoh’ means – ‘the dweller of a grand luxurious palace’.

Thirty-two dynasties had ruled over Egypt. The rule of those dynasties has been divided into three phases, viz., Old Kingdom, (3500 B.C.-2700 B.C.), Middle Kingdom (2400 B.C.-1800 B.C.) and New Empire (1600 B.C.-1000 B.C.). Among the rulers of ‘Old Kingdom’, Josher and Khufu were two important Pharaohes.

During the reign of Pharaoh Khufu the ‘Great Pyramid’ was built at ‘Gizeh’, Amenhotep I and Amenhotep III were very efficient rulers of the ‘Middle Kingdom’. After Amenhotep III, the Kingdom became weak and it was invaded by Hyksos, the ferocious tribe of Asia. Egypt was freed from their clutches with the emergence of ‘New Empire’.

During this ‘New Empire’, rulers like Thutmose III. Akhnaton and Rameses III attained the pinnacle of celebrity. The occupation of Egypt by the Persians in 525 B.C. put an end to the civilisation of ancient Egypt.

Society

The Egyptian civilisation was balanced. In the ladder of the society, the ‘Pharaoh’ occupied the highest position. The meaning of ‘Pharoah’ is the ‘dweller of luxurious palace’. People had great adoration for him. Below him remained the ‘Nobles’ who lived in houses made of bricks. They also led a luxurious life.

The ‘priests’ occupied a position in the society next to the Nobles. They worshipped different gods and goddesses and commanded respect from the people. Below them remained the ‘Traders and Artisans’. At the bottom of the society remained the ‘depressed classes’ like the fanners and slaves.

Economy

The heart of Egyptian economy was agriculture. By irrigation the Egyptians were able to produce more crops. They also had trade relation with different countries of the world. The Nile valley became a centre of trade and commerce. Economically, Egypt was enriched and that enrichment galvanised the Egyptian civilisation.

The method of writing, literature, art, architecture, religion, science of the Egyptians had compelled the people of the world to raise their eyebrows.

Art of Writing

To express the thinking of their mind, the Egyptians invented art of writing. Although from the very beginning they were not acquainted with the alphabets, still then they were able to express their idea through different pictures. So, their writing was popularly known as ‘Hieroglyphy’ or ‘sacred writing’ because those were written by the priests.

At first, the Egyptians used pictures and then they used around 2000 pictographic signs. In due course of time their number was reduced and limited to 700 only. At last they invented 24 alphabets. They engraved those alphabets on stone. The ‘Rosetta Stone’ preserved in the British Museum in London is its classic example. Later on the Egyptians used pen and paper

Paper, pen, ink and inkpot

On the banks of Nile, a plant named ‘Papyrus’ was plentily available. The leaves of Papyrus tree were joined through gum and the long roll was prepared. By polish such rolls were glazed. In a Papyrus roll of twenty to forty feet length and five to ten inches breadth the Egyptian wrote their idea. The modem name ‘Paper’, perhaps, has been derived from the term ‘Papyrus’.

They took juice of plants and prepared ‘ink’ by mixing gum and water with it. In several cases they also prepared ink by missing gum with black particles found from kitchen house or lamps.

They sharpened the edge of the steam of a plant and prepared ‘reed pen’. By dipping the pen inside the ‘ink pot’ they wrote on Papyrus. At last, pieces of Papyrus were rolled and preserved inside the earthen pots. Writing was indeed a noble invention of the Egyptians.

Literature

The ancient Egyptians had created immortal literature. They composed literature concerning astrology, metallurgy, weaving and cooking. Besides, they also reflected legends, adventures, thrilling experiences, religious thought etc. in their literature. Among their prose writings, ‘The tale of two brothers’, ‘The tale of Sinuhi’, ‘The legend of the doomed prince’ and ‘The story of the ship-wrecked Sailor’ were very famous. Their religious literature contained books like ‘The Pyramid Text’, ‘The Coffin Text’, ‘The Book of the dead’, ‘A dialogue between the disgusted Man and his soul’, ‘The Maxims of Ptahotep’ and ‘Hymn to Aton’ (written by Akhnaton).

Science: Calendar

The ancient Egyptians were very good astronomers of their time. Looking at the cloudless clear blue sky, they could predict about the solar and lunar eclipse, flood in the river Nile, time of sowing seeds etc. They could also know about the movement of Planets and Stars. They had prepared a ‘Calendar’.

They divided a year into 360 days and 12 months, each month consisting of 30 days. Each day was divided into 24 hours or two parts and each part consisting of 12 hours. At the end of every year, they added 5 days more only to be spent in feast and merrymaking. Julius Caesor had adopted this Calendar Pope Gregory XIII adopted this calendar with a little modification. The Egyptian Calendar is the first recorded event of human history.

Mathematics and Geometry

The ancient Egyptians exhibited their talent in the field of ‘Mathematics’ and ‘Geometry’. They were very efficient in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. They had acquired knowledge in triangle, quadrangle, square, rectangle etc. for measuring the land.

They utilised their mathematical and geometrical knowledge in building the Pyramids. The oldest treatise on Mathematics ‘Ahmes Papyrus’ has been found from Egypt which speaks the high mathematical and geometrical knowledge of the ancient Egyptians.

Medical Science

The Egyptians acquired deep knowledge in medical science. From their old library two books concerning medical science have been discovered. Edwin Smith has translated these books. From that translation it is known that the Egyptians knew about different diseases and also knew how to cure them.

They had idea regarding surgery. They could also preserve dead bodies by applying chemicals. The physicians of Egypt also knew the use of castor oil. It will not be wrong if the Egyptians are termed as the ‘Father of Medical science’.

Art and architecture: Pyramid

The Egyptians have immortalised their name in the annals of history due to their art and architecture. Pyramid is the classic example of it. The tomb of the Egyptian Pharaoh is known as Pyramid. The people of Egypt believed that after death, the soul returns back to the body. So they preserved the dead body of the Pharaoh by applying chemicals in it. This preserved body of the Pharaoh was known a ‘Mummy’. It was covered with cloth and kept inside a coffin.

That coffin was again kept inside a stone box named as Sarcophagus which contained small holes. The Egyptians believed that the soul can again enter into that body through these holes. That box was placed inside a room in the middle of the Pyramid. In the walls of that room the life history of the Pharaoh was written.

The wife of the Pharaoh, his servants and slaves were killed and kept inside the room with food, water, cloth and jewels. It was believed that the soul could recognise these things and again return back to the dead body of the Pharaoh. By covering this room, the tomb of Pharaoh or Pyramid was built by stone, bricks and limestone. It has been rightly told regarding the Pyramid that “All the world fears time, but time fears the Pyramids”.

Among the Pyramids of Egypt, the Pyramid built by Pharaoh Josher at Sakara is the oldest. The famous and largest Pyramid of Khufu was built at Gizeh. This is regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. This 481 feet Pyramid is built over 13 acres of land. 2,300,000 pieces of stones were used in it.

The weight of each piece of stone is 2.5 tons. Nearly twenty years were spent for building this Pyramid. In fact, Pyramid immortalises the Egyptians in the annals of world history.

Temple

Temples were another classic example of the Egyptian architecture. The Pharaohs built temples to please gods and goddesses. The Karnak temple at Thebes is world famous. This is the largest temple of Egypt. Its length is around two kilometres. This temple rests on 12 pillars, each having 79 feet height.

The temple walls are filled up with the war scene and achievements of the Pharaohs and its top, with hieroglyphic writings. This temple was meant for the worship of Amon-Ra or Sun-god. The temples at Luxor and Abu Simbel were also very nice.

Sculpture

The ancient Egyptians were skilled sculptors. Among their Sculptures, Sphinx was very famous. This gigantic stone statue is a remarkable sculpture having the body of a lion with human head. The Great Sphinx stands at the doorstep of the biggest Pyramid at Gizeh. It represents the head of Pharaoh Khafare of Amenhotep III. Its grave facial appearance and a ray of laughter make it unintelligible before the viewers. Besides the Sphincs, the Egyptians built huge images. The great statues of

Amenhotep III at Luxor, Ramesis III, his queen and family deity Amon- Ra at Abu Simbel are regarded as great statues of the world. Innumerable statues, animals, birds, ivory, wood and terracotta testify to the fact that the ancient Egyptians were skilled sculptors.

Religion

Religion played a vital role in the life of the Egyptians. From the beginning they believed in Polytheism They worshipped around 2200 gods and goddesses. They attached divinity in creatures and worshipped them. Their crocodile god was famous as ‘Sibek’. The cat god was called ‘Pashat’ and jackle god was named as ‘Anubis’.

The Egyptians regarded ‘Ra’ as the God of the universe. His son ‘Osiris’ was famous as the ‘Lord of Egypt’ and also as Justice of the departed soul. His wife ‘Isis’ was the goddess of fertile soil. ‘Horas’, the son of Osiris was the god of poor and destitute. There was an influential community of priests in Egypt to worship these gods and goddesses.

Pharaoh Akhnaton or Amenhotep IV brought a revolutionary change in the field of religion. He introduced ‘Monotheism’ in Egypt. He proclaimed that there was only one God and he is ‘Aton’ or ‘Sun-god’. The priests of Egypt had described ‘Ra’ or ‘Amon-Ra’ as a dreadful god. However, Akhnoton declared ‘Aton’ as omniscient, kind, father-like and an incarnation of mercy.

He further told that Aton had made the world beautiful and created mankind. He prohibited the worship of ‘Amon- Ra’ in Karnak and Luxor and introduced the offers like fruits in vegetables of animal sacrifice. That is why the priests considered him as their enemy. His wife Nefertiti helped him in the glorification of monotheism.

After Akhnaton his son-in-law Tutankhamen also popularised monotheism in Egypt. After him, polytheism was again introduced in Egypt. The ancient-Egyptians also believed in life after death. That is why they built Pyramid. Osiris was sending a man to heaven or hell after judgement. The Egyptians also believed in deeds. The result of good deeds led a human being to heaven and bad deeds, to hell.

Philosophy

The ancient Egyptians had also attained celebrity in the field of Philosophy. Ptahotep was the greatest philosopher of that time. He was the provincial ruler of Memphis. In his famous book entitled ‘Instructions to Ptahotep’ he had given many advices for regulating the life. Much before Confucious, Socrates and Buddha Ptahotep had discussed the philosophy of life.

Postal Service

The people of ancient Egypt were aware about the postal system. The study of Papyrus leads historians to believe that the people of that land were sending message. In an ancient Papyrus it has been written— “Write me through the bearer of the letter”. This conclusively proves that the Egyptians were well aware about the postal service. It will not be wrong if the ancient Egyptians are described as “The father of modern postal service”.

Historiography

The Egyptians were the father of ‘Historiography’. The historians accompanied the Pharaoes to the battle field and recorded their achievements. The ‘Rosetta stone’ is its classic example. By deciphering it the French palaeographer Champollion had discerned many facts regarding the Egyptian civilisation. The history of different royal dynasties is known due to this historiography. Thus, the ancient Egyptians were trend setters of history writing.

Agriculture and Irrigation

In the field of agriculture the Egyptians also excelled. They were skilled agriculturists. They had invented plough and hoe. By a device called ‘Shadur they could carry the water of Nile to the canals which helped in irrigation. The chief crops grown by them were wheat, barley flax. They also produced fruits like orange, date-palm, melon etc.

Navigation, Trade and Commerce

The Egyptians first used boat in case of trade and commerce. Egypt became a centre of trade in the entire Mediterranean region. In due course of time, they established trade relation with Nubiya, Sudan Janjibar, Persia, Crate and Phonesia. They exported ivory, gold, the feather of Ostrich and slaves.

They imported cattle, fish and wine from Asia; Precious red stones from Persia and copper from Senai. By utilising navy for the first time, the Egyptians have enriched the human civilisation.

Craftsmanship

The Egyptians were also expert in craftsmanship. They knew the art of melting together copper with tin to make bronze. They made brick, cement and plaster of Paris. They also manufactured glazed pottery and coloured glass. They were also apt in the carving of wood. From Papyrus plants they made ropes, mats and sandals. The Egyptian workmen developed the art of enamelling and varnishing. Thus, their skilled craftsmanship was widely recognised in the world.

System of Administration

The Pharaoes of Egypt were administrations of superb calibre. They were very powerful. They commanded respect from their subjects. In many cases divinity was attached to the Pharaoes. They discharged efficient administration due to the help of ministers, provincial administrators and royal officers. This efficient administration was recognised all over the world.

Infact, the contribution of Egyptians to human civilisation was immense. Egypt, the ‘land of Pyramid’ allured the attention of millions due to its splendid art and architecture. In the field of writing, religion, science, administration trade and commerce etc. the ancient Egyptians had left their indelible marks on the sea shore of time.