Sociology – 2nd Year

Paper – I (Short Notes)

Unit IV – Cultural Processes

Language/भाषा

Table of Contents

  • Changes in culture and society are major theoretical concerns in sociology and social anthropology, with theoretical differences often evident in this area.
  • Social change refers to alterations in the cultural, structural, population, or ecological characteristics of a social system such as a society.
  • Social systems are always in a state of change, with man and his social institutions evolving over time.
  • Both man and social institutions have undergone significant changes throughout history.
  • Yogendra Singh (1996) views social change in India as ideology, highlighting the confusion between different levels, institutions, customs, and cultural forms that form the basis of sociological categories.
  • Contemporary Indian society is undergoing rapid changes in both structure and functioning, with significant shifts in social institutions and values.
  • Changes in social institutions will particularly impact Hindus, as their way of life is deeply tied to three core social institutions: Caste, Joint Family, and Village Community.
  • These three social institutions—Caste, Joint Family, and Village Community—are undergoing important transformations.
  • Traditionally, India has been described as a traditional society characterized by several key features:
    • The status of a person is determined by birth, and individuals do not strive for social mobility.
    • Individual behavior is governed by customs, with little variation from generation to generation.
    • Social organization is based on hierarchy.
    • Individuals identify with primary groups, and kinship relations dominate social interactions.
    • People are generally conservative.
    • The economy is simple, and economic productivity above subsistence is low.
    • Mythical thought predominates in society.
  • However, this traditional description no longer fully captures the totality of contemporary Indian society.

Source of Social Change: Endogenous and Exogenous

  • A popular way to look at change is through endogenous and exogenous sources.
  • Endogenous factors explain changes within the system itself, while exogenous factors refer to changes from outside the system.
  • Orthogenetic changes are explained through endogenous factors, while heterogenetic changes are explained through exogenous factors.
  • Civilization or social structure grows in two stages: Orthogenetic (internal growth) and Heterogenetic (external influences).
  • Change in culture typically progresses from a folk or peasant structure to an urban cultural structure and social organization.
  • Urban elites often view their traditions as ‘superstitions’ compared to rural beliefs.
  • Redfield described India’s little traditions as polytheistic, magic-oriented, and unphilosophical.
  • Differentiation between great traditions and little traditions:
    • Great traditions are mentioned in original religious texts and epics, wide-ranging, and national in scope. These are linked to the elite, reflective urban class, organized with clear norms and rituals. They are transmitted through texts.
    • Little traditions are oral, localized, and associated with rural, unlettered, folk, tribal, or peasant populations. These are unorganized, haphazard, and ambiguous, transmitted orally.
  • An example of the evolution of great traditions: the Ramayana, originally composed in Prakrit by Rishi Valmiki, later recomposed by Tulsidasa in a North Indian Hindi dialect, spread by wanderers, singers, and mendicants. Despite regional variations, the original Avadhi dialect of Tulsidasa’s poetry remains influential.
  • The flow between great and little traditions has been a common process in Indian civilization, with the flow from great to little being more pronounced.
  • Despite the dominance of great traditions, there is periodic revival and interest in folk traditions among the urban elite, such as in rural dress, folksongs, folk theatre (e.g., nautanki), and religio-magical practices (e.g., hanging painted earthen pots).
  • Great and little traditions are not strictly separated by a rural-urban divide. Both exist in villages and cities, albeit in different forms.
  • The inspiration for great traditions is partially drawn from little traditions from which the elite has originated.
  • Both great traditions and little traditions are incomplete on their own, and there is no inherent clash between them.
  • Mandelbaum describes the great tradition as a convenient abstraction that is not followed purely in its literary form by the general population, either in villages or cities.
  • S.C. Dube challenges the static definition of great tradition, suggesting that the process of interchange between greatand little traditions is dynamic and continuous.
  • Redfield acknowledges that the great tradition is always changing, expanding, and evolving, absorbing new elements and losing old ones.
  • Yogendra Singh (1973) critiques the classification of traditions as ad hoc and argues that multiple classification attempts suffer from limitations.
  • Traditions do not function in isolation; they influence each other significantly, and their dynamic interaction must be studied to understand contemporary Indian culture.
  • Cultural continuity in India is maintained through the coexistence of different types of traditions. For example, Hindusrespecting and worshipping at the mazar of Sufi saints does not negate their Hindutva.
  • The presence of Muslim musicians in Shastriya Sangeet exemplifies the continuity in Indian culture despite religious differences.
  • Magic and medicine coexist in India, with magic being part of little traditions and formal medicine (like Ayurvedaor modern allopathy) being textual. Both are used in different situations.
  • The great traditions of the urban world have not displaced the little traditions of the village; instead, there is interaction and fusion between the two.
  • Modernization does not lead to the displacement of tradition; rather, it results in the modernization of tradition.

Universalization and Parochialization

  • McKim Marriot, a disciple of Redfield, refined the concept of the interaction between Great and Little Traditions.
  • Marriot conducted a study in Kishangarhi (Western Uttar Pradesh) and found a constant interaction between elements of Little and Great Traditions.
  • Marriot’s approach is historical and cultural, studying rural communities and societies.
  • Marriot introduced two processes: Universalization and Parochialization.
  • Universalization refers to the upward journey of Little Traditions becoming part of Great Traditions.
  • Parochialization is the downward devolution of Great Traditions elements integrating with Little Traditions; a process of localization.
  • There is continuous interaction between Little and Great Traditions.
  • Parochialization shows how local rural or folk traditions contribute to and change the form and content of Great Traditions.
  • Parochialization does not emphasize rationality and deep thinking, with many elements of Little Traditionsaccepted despite lacking rational explanation.
  • Parochialization often distorts Great Traditions, leading to less organization in Little Traditions.
  • Marriot uses examples from Kishangarhi to illustrate parochialization, such as:
    • Gobardhan Puja: A local form of the Govardhan Puja, altered by the process of parochialization.
    • Nauratha Puja: A local variation of the Nauratha festival, with a local goddess replacing Durga, showing parochialization.
  • The concept of Universalization was first introduced by Redfield and Milton Singer.
  • Universalization explains how local Little Traditions move upward, becoming accepted and incorporated into the religious texts and epics of Great Traditions.
  • Marriot illustrates Universalization with examples like:
    • The worship of Saurati during Diwali, which is a local practice incorporated into the Great Traditions as part of Lakshmi Puja.
    • Raksha Bandhan: A festival originating in Little Traditions (e.g., Saluno festival) and becoming part of mainstream Great Traditions.
  • The concepts of Universalization and Parochialization are not a linear process but form a circular flow: elements from Great Traditions become part of Little Traditions, and vice versa.
  • These concepts are limited in explaining the complexity of Indian civilization, as Folk culture extends beyond local regions.
  • The dichotomy of Universalization and Parochialization has limited validity because many cultural phenomena are pan-Indian and cannot be strictly categorized.
  • A historical approach is necessary to understand the origins of rituals and beliefs, as they evolve over centuries and are often difficult to trace in semi-literate sub-groups.
  • Yogendra Singh (1977) comments that Universalization and Parochialization describe cultural change similar to the concept of Sanskritization.
  • Despite this, Marriot’s contribution is limited as he focuses on the orthogenetic process of cultural change, without considering its more dynamic aspects.

Processes of Change

Sanskritization

  • The processes of Sanskritization, Westernization/Modernization, Secularization, and Democratization are important for analyzing social change in Indian society (both rural and urban).
  • The Indian caste system has never been absolutely rigid or static, contrary to the traditional view.
  • This has led to various attempts to explain social mobility within the caste system.
  • Four approaches to the study of social mobility in India are:
    • (i) Individual or family mobility approach.
    • (ii) Corporate or group mobility approach.
    • (iii) Comparative approach.
    • (iv) Reference group approach.
  • M.N. Srinivas is the prominent advocate of the corporate mobility approach in India.
  • Indian sociologists and social anthropologists have developed several concepts to analyze social change in India, with M.N. Srinivas making a significant contribution.
  • The first systematic attempt to analyze social change in India was made by Srinivas in his study, Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India (1952).
  • Sanskritization, as used by Srinivas, describes the cultural mobility process in traditional rural India.
  • Srinivas argues that the Hindu caste system is not rigid, allowing for upward mobility through Sanskritization.
  • Sanskritization is defined as the process by which a low caste, tribe, or other group adopts the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology, and lifestyle of a higher caste, particularly the twice-born (dwija) caste.
  • Examples of Sanskritization include low castes giving up non-vegetarianism, drinking liquor, animal sacrifices, and imitating the Brahmin lifestyle in terms of food, dress, and rituals.
  • By adopting such practices, a low caste or tribe may claim a higher position in the local caste hierarchy within one or two generations.
  • Initially, Srinivas used the term ‘Brahminization’ but later preferred ‘Sanskritization’ to include non-Brahmin models like the Kshatriya, Jat, Vaishya, and other twice-born caste models.
  • Sanskritization is a broader concept than Brahminization, encompassing various caste models and a wider range of values and lifestyles.
  • Changes associated with Sanskritization include:
    • Erosion of cultural autonomy of women (e.g., restrictions on choosing life partners, stricter sexual morality).
    • Changes in family structure, moving towards the Hindu joint family with stronger paternal authority, monogamy, and increased caste organization.
    • Emphasis on higher education, the practice of dowry instead of bride price, and avoidance of beef, pork, and liquor consumption.
    • Religious practices such as wearing sacred threads, giving up pig sacrifices, and increased emphasis on pilgrimages.
  • Political and economic factors also influence Sanskritization.
  • Under British rule, lower castes had more opportunities for Sanskritization because the British political system was less involved in caste dynamics.
  • Sometimes, lower castes aspiring to raise their status through Sanskritization face hostility from middle caste groups, due to conflicts of interest.
  • Lower castes may experience ridicule when trying to adopt the lifestyle of higher castes, such as wearing shoes or clean clothes, adopting their rituals, and changing their names.
  • In some cases, Sanskritization does not lead to an increase in caste status, and lower castes may continue to face social disabilities.
  • The expansion of transportation and communication has sped up the process of Sanskritization, opening new avenues for cultural contact.
  • The democratic value system provides more freedom for individuals to choose their lifestyle, supporting Sanskritization while simultaneously encouraging conservative tendencies.
  • Despite their low social status, many lower castes are often more liberal, permissive, and progressive, especially in terms of women’s rights, sexual conduct, and freedom to choose life partners.
  • However, these lower castes may become more conservative as they attempt to become Sanskritized.
  • Srinivas admits that Sanskritization is a complex and heterogeneous concept and might be better treated as a bundle of concepts.
  • Sanskritization represents a widespread cultural process, rather than a single, simple phenomenon.
  • Sanskritization is a cultural process often linked to the acquisition of political or economic power by a caste, both being parts of the broader process of social mobility.
  • Lower castes who become prosperous, powerful, or educated often try to assert a higher position in the caste hierarchy through Sanskritization.
  • However, these castes also struggle to retain their “backward” status to benefit from educational concessions and government jobs.
  • S.C. Dube points out that the Sanskritization hypothesis has limitations and cannot be used as a comprehensive tool to analyze India’s complex cultural scene.
  • The Sanskritic Model is deceptive as it presents not one model, but many, with divergent ideals in the various systems of Hindu thought.
  • Hindu philosophy is a collection of many thought systems, not a single unified approach, and the choice of specific cultural elements for Sanskritization is influenced by regional contexts and historical backgrounds.
  • A generalized all-India Sanskritic Model is too vague for analytical purposes; instead, regional models are needed to understand the process in specific contexts.
  • Not all groups use Sanskritic sources for their cultural practices; groups such as Muslims, Christians, Parsis, and certain Hindu sects derive their inspiration from other texts or religious figures.
  • Buddhism, Kabir, Ravidas, Dadu, and Jyotiba Phule are examples of religious movements whose writings are not in Sanskrit and often reject key ideas from the Sanskritic Model.
  • Sanskritization is not just about imitation; it has also been driven by socio-economic deprivation and frustration, as lower castes challenge the social hierarchy and assert their status.
  • The act of lower castes emulating the higher castes can also be a form of revolt against their oppressors, rather than mere imitation.
  • Harold Gould explains that Sanskritization may be driven by repressed hostility from lower castes, trying to gain control over the same system that oppressed them, seeking satisfaction by succeeding where they were once oppressed.
  • In urban areas, the importance of rituals in determining social status has diminished, but caste remains relevant in the selection of spouses, indicating that Sanskritization still holds importance in many contexts.
  • Power and wealth are central to secular status, but even with wealth and power, lower castes still seek legitimacy by associating with higher caste groups or concealing their original caste.
  • Modern status principles often operate alongside traditional caste-based social stratification, and they rarely function independently of the caste system.
  • Harold Gould suggests that the Indian caste system, like all status hierarchies, leads lower castes to compare themselves with higher castes and try to reduce or eliminate status differences.
  • Sanskritization in India works within the unique structure of the caste system, which influences how the process of social mobility and change manifests in Indian society.
  • The changes brought about by Sanskritization have significant implications for understanding social change in contemporary Indian society.

Westernization

  • Westernization refers to the cultural changes and institutional innovations in India due to its political and cultural contact with Western nations, particularly Britain.
  • The process of Westernization includes changes in technology, institutions, ideology, and values resulting from over 150 years of British rule.
  • It emphasizes scientific approaches, materialism, individualism, liberalism, humanism, equality, egalitarianism, and rationalism.
  • Key by-products of Westernization include the establishment of scientific, technological, and educational institutions, rise of nationalism, new political culture, and leadership in India.
  • Westernization has influenced the caste system, reduced its rigidity, promoted the disintegration of the joint family, and spurred social reform movements.
  • In the economic and political spheres, it has led to the disintegration of cottage industries, promoted democratic values, national consciousness, social justice, and created a uniform administrative system across the country.
  • Srinivas argues that Westernization does not hinder Sanskritization; rather, they often go hand in hand.
  • In some cases, the expansion of Westernization (through modern communication systems like railways, postal services, newspapers, etc.) accelerates Sanskritization, as it boosts pilgrimages, religious propaganda, and caste and communal congregations.
  • Higher castes exposed to Westernization (through English education) may abandon their traditional lifestyles, including ritual pollution, dietary restrictions, and even practices like gotra and sacred thread.
  • The lower castes trying to elevate their status may fill the cultural vacuum left by higher castes by adopting Sanskritic models.
  • Westernized individuals tend to practice non-traditional occupations, marry outside their caste/region/religion, and adopt Western models and lifestyle, moving away from traditional practices.
  • Lower castes often work towards Sanskritization, while higher castes turn to Westernization to maintain the social distance, as Sanskritization makes it harder for them to retain their elevated position within the traditional caste hierarchy.
  • Harold Gould argues that Sanskritized castes (like Brahmins and Rajputs) cannot rise further within the traditional caste system and may either go down or accept equality, which challenges their inherent superiority.
  • Westernization serves as a way for higher castes to preserve their elevated status by moving outside the caste system, while lower castes chase equality only to find that higher castes have already moved on to Westernization.
  • The well-off lower castes in urban areas may adopt Westernization directly, while for most lower castes, it remains complex and difficult to understand or adopt.
  • There is a dynamic interplay between Sanskritization and Westernization, influencing social mobility and status.
  • The term Westernization is controversial. Some scholars prefer de-sanskritization as a term for the changes caused by Westernization.
  • Srinivas associates Westernization with British influence on India, but this view is limited as the post-independence period saw influences from Russia and America, especially in economic measures.
  • Russian and American influences, including socialist impacts on economic planning, public sector emphasis, and nationalization, have also shaped Indian society.
  • The impact of globalization, the New Economic Policy, and even Chinese influence in healthcare measures, especially in rural areas, marks the new phase of Westernization.
  • Some scholars criticize the term Westernization for its colonial connotation and prefer the term Modernization.

Modernization

  • Modernization became a dominant theme after World War II (especially in the 1950s and 1960s) and is central in the “sociology of development,” referring to the process of economic growth and social change.
  • Modernization studies focus on the effects of economic development on traditional social structures and values.
  • The process of modernization involves industrialization, urbanization, high standard of living, development of civilization, and a broader viewpoint.
  • Eisenstadt (1966) defines modernization as the process of change towards social, economic, and political systems developed in Western Europe and North America during the 17th to 19th centuries, later spreading to South America, Asia, and Africa.
  • The concept of modernization emerged as a response to challenges faced by the Third World after WWII, with some scholars seeing it as the child of Westernization.
  • S.C. Dube (1988) notes that modernization was attractive because it respected the cultural sensitivities of both elites and the masses in the Third World.
  • Unlike Westernization, modernization was less value-loaded, recognizing the strength of cultural heritage without threatening the cultural identity of those seeking rapid change.
  • Lerner (1958) identifies three core features of a modernized personality: empathy, mobility, and high participation.
  • Empathy is the capacity to see things from others’ perspectives, essential for improved human interaction in modernized societies.
  • Mobility refers to the ability to take on new statuses and roles as required by changing circumstances, contrasting with the ascribed statuses in traditional societies.
  • High participation refers to the increased role of individuals in achieving social goals, requiring them to visualize new objectives and modify their roles accordingly.
  • The core of modernization is rationality, and modernized societies operate through institutional structures that can absorb changes inherent in the process of modernization.
  • In contemporary India, modernization for economic growth and social change is a work in progress.
  • Agricultural and industrial sectors have shown progress, but there are regional imbalances and issues with the distributive aspects of economic growth.
  • The growth of elitism, corruption, and nepotism needs to be addressed, and political and administrative actions should be taken to curb these issues.
  • The cohesive bonds of society must be strengthened to foster stability and progress.
  • Modern societies are rational and scientific, but India has faced rising forces of fundamentalism, communalism, and religious revivalism, especially following the Babri Masjid – Ram Janmabhoomi dispute.
  • The events of December 6, 1992 (the demolition of Babri Masjid) have created significant threats to India’s social fabric and rationalism.
  • Minorities should shed tendencies of obscurantism and support democratic, progressive, and secular forces to save the nation.
  • Conditions should be created for greater participation of minorities in nation-building.
  • The Ayodhya controversy has caused significant damage to rationalism and scientific temper, which must be strengthened through institutional networks to further modernization.
  • S.C. Dube (1974) emphasizes that there is no standard model of modernization, and developing societies can adopt their own models and paths for achieving modernization.
  • India has chosen democracy and secularism as the basis for its modernized society.
  • Adoption of modern science and technology is crucial for achieving cultural and technological modernization in India.

Secularization

  • The process of Secularization is closely related to Westernization and is sometimes considered a by-product of it.
  • Secularization gained momentum during British rule in India, influenced by the Industrial Revolution, the expansion of transport and communication, the spread of education (especially English education), and growing use of modern science and technology.
  • The Industrial Revolution and these changes radically affected people’s thinking and expanded their mental horizons, especially in towns and cities.
  • For the first time, Indian people, especially in urban areas, were exposed to new ideas and ideologies, leading to increased social interaction between previously isolated groups and communities.
  • The ideas of rationalism and humanitarianism provided new dimensions to people’s thought processes, strengthening the process of secularization.
  • Many myths were exploded, and stereotypes about different communities were replaced by more realisticperspectives.
  • A significant consequence of secularization in Indian society was the shift towards a non-religious approach in analyzing and understanding social, economic, and political problems.
  • Urban populations began to view many worldly problems independently, without the influence of religion.
  • The process of secularization allowed the intellectual class to analyze morality and moral values on rational and humanistic grounds, independent of religious influence.
  • Previously, ethics and morality were considered inseparable from religion, as it was believed that only established religions provided societal guidelines in ethics and morality.
  • The rise of nationalism and the freedom movement further fueled secularization, as people from diverse cultural and religious backgrounds united under the cause of freedom.
  • The Indian Constitution of independent India is based on secular ideals, reconciling diverse socio-religious interests.
  • Despite challenges from religious fanaticism and revivalism, the process of secularization continues to take root in India.
  • The promulgation of a secular Constitution even after the partition of India and the formation of a theocratic state in its neighborhood is evidence of secularization’s progress.
  • Secularization is a wider process than Sanskritization, which is primarily concerned with the Hindu community.
  • Secularization covers all sections of society, while Sanskritization is mainly relevant to the lower castes.
  • Secularization is particularly appealing to the urban, educated class, whereas Sanskritization mainly attracts the lower castes.
  • Secularization is a modern phenomenon and a by-product of Westernization, while Sanskritization is linked to tradition and conservatism.

Democratization

  • Democracy and democratization are crucial aspects of social change and modernization in India.
  • India is progressively becoming more democratized.
  • The adoption of adult and universal franchise was a revolutionary step forward in democratization.
  • Adult franchise required political parties and candidates to reach out to millions of illiterate voters across rural villages and urban slums.
  • This challenge was overcome by utilizing traditional networks such as caste, kinship, ethnicity, and patron-clientrelationships.
  • As a result, even isolated and backward groups were politically mobilized.
  • The abolition of untouchability and making it a cognizable offence was a significant step in the fight against inequality.
  • However, the legal abolition of untouchability is distinct from its actual disappearance.
  • In addition to adult franchise, the reservation of seats in legislatures and government jobs for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes helped elevate these traditionally underprivileged groups.
  • At each election, the poor and underprivileged populations became increasingly politically mobilized.
  • The previously oppressed groups now had to be approached for their votes, giving them a new sense of importance.
  • Despite progress, in several rural areas, the traditional Jajmani system (patron-client relations) still influences voting.
  • The weakening of the Jajmani system has led to more political autonomy for the so-called ‘service castes’.
  • However, the electoral process has also strengthened caste consciousness.
  • Although democratization has seen some success in the past 50 years, traditional society in India still places trust on individuals rather than institutions.
  • According to Deepankar Gupta (2000), traditional societies function on personal trust, personal loyalty, and patron-client dependence.
  • In medieval India, people trusted a banker, not the banking system itself.
  • For trust to become social trust, individuals must rely on impersonal institutions.
  • This concept is also applicable to democratic institutions, where the process of democratization plays a pivotal role in nurturing trust in institutions.

New Indian Elite and Emergence of Middle Class

  • The role of the elite and middle class has been a key area of sociological enquiry in Indian society.
  • An elite is a group in a social system that occupies a position of privilege or dominance.
  • Elites exist in different social contexts and at various levels, with power often distributed among them.
  • In political systems, power elites within military, economic, and political institutions may move freely between positions of authority and share background traits like family ties and schooling (Wright Mills).
  • The middle class is located at the intersection of economy, society, and politics, but its definition can be challenging.
  • In Marxian terms, middle classes are seen as the most important non-polar classes in a bipolar system of Bourgeoisieand Proletariat.
  • Antonio Gramsci provided a Marxist analysis of the middle class and its role in capitalist societies.
  • In India, the term middle class is more symbolic than factual, as per D.P. Mukherji (1948) and B.B. Misra (1961).
  • The elite structure in India is shaped by values and their expression in power structures and decision-making.
  • In traditional India, elite roles were based on hierarchy, holism, and continuity, with Brahmins and Kshatriyas being key elite figures.
  • With Muslim rule, the elite structure was stabilized but not replaced; it was more about a succession of elites rather than structural change.
  • Under British rule, a new elite emerged, with secularized education and the creation of a class of new intellectualswho were different from traditional ones.
  • The new elite, largely urban and educated through English education, consisted of professionals like lawyers, journalists, and professors.
  • The rise of this new middle class was closely linked to westernization and the expansion of the administration, judiciary, and teaching professions.
  • The early 20th century elite stood for modernization, social reforms, egalitarianism, and social justice, which contrasted with traditional Indian values of hierarchy and continuity.
  • Post-independence India saw the emergence of a new elite structure with rural-based political elites gaining more influence, diminishing the power of professional elites.
  • Changes in elite structure included:
    1. Increased influence of rural-based elites.
    2. Declining influence of professional elites.
    3. Growing articulation of regional and interest groups.
    4. Democratization and the breakdown of upper-caste dominance.
  • Backward classes and Scheduled Castes have gained significant presence in bureaucracy and political leadership.
  • The post-independence middle class is not homogeneous and is composed of people from different castes, religions, and professions.
  • This new middle class is embedded in the web of consumerism and has aspirations to become affluent quickly.
  • The new economic policy, globalization, and technological advancements have provided avenues for mobility.
  • The middle class has evolved from being a force for social change in the 1950s and 1960s to becoming opportunistic, self-centered, and corrupt.
  • Politicians have diverted attention from nation-building issues by playing on caste and religion, which has contributed to the vulgarization of the middle class.
  • Today, the most communalized segment of Indian society is the urban, educated middle class.

Agents of Social Change

  • The process of social change and modernization does not occur in a vacuum and has several agents of social change.
  • Education, mass media, and communication are crucial agents of social change in India.
  • India achieved high degrees of modernization (both cultural and technological) during British rule.
  • Technological innovations such as transportation, communication, railways, roadways, waterways, and printing technology facilitated spatial mobility and broadened the worldview of people.
  • The westernized elite during British rule reinterpreted Hinduism, the caste system, and accepted egalitarianism, gender justice, and humanism as keys to a new India.
  • Education played a pivotal role in social change during British rule, being both quantitatively and qualitativelydifferent from previous systems.
  • The new system of education was liberal, based on a scientific worldview focusing on freedom, equality, and humanism, and denial of dogmas.
  • English became the medium of instruction at higher education levels from 1835, offering access to new worldviews based on liberalism and scientific temper.
  • Primary education was still in vernacular languages, with English being introduced at the secondary and college/university levels.
  • Education was secularized, removing it from religious settings, and became accessible to all social classes, enabling new criteria for social stratification and upward mobility.
  • The change in the education system facilitated the rise of a new intelligentsia or intellectual class, including artists, writers, bureaucrats, scientists, philosophers, social theorists, and others.
  • Key concerns for intellectuals included understanding the tension between tradition and modernity, and whether modernity was an elitist project detached from the subaltern masses.
  • Intellectuals like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Akshay Kumar Dutt, Vidyasagar, and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan criticized traditional educational systems and endorsed science and rationality.
  • Nehru, while valuing tradition, used it to create an alternate political-cultural agenda promoting secular humanism.
  • Education played a crucial role in the socialization of the younger generation and has contributed to the advancement of science and technology in India.
  • Modern education is instrumental in changing attitudes, customs, traditions, morality, religious beliefs, and the value system in India.
  • Education has also contributed to women’s empowerment and gender justice, and helped with occupational mobilitydespite traditionally rigid caste and social structures.
  • The spread of education increased political awareness among the poor and deprived sections of society.
  • While the educated population is often the most progressive, there are also regressive, conservative, orthodox, casteist, and communalist elements within the educated groups, raising questions about the content of syllabi.
  • The quality of education depends on the objective analysis, teaching methods, and the state’s role in promoting education, particularly if it sponsors communalized history or orthodox teachings instead of rationalism and a scientific outlook.
  • Despite challenges, the role of education in social change remains undeniable.
  • The role of mass media and communication as agents of social change has been a significant area of sociological enquiry.
  • Mass media refers to the dissemination of information, ideas, and entertainment through technological mediums such as radio, television, cinema, press, and advertising.
  • Mass media coexists with traditional forms of media like folk songs, dance, drama, and puppetry.
  • Technological innovations in the 20th century have transformed mass media, particularly with the reach and impact of radio and television.
  • Radio has reached 96% of India’s tribal population, and television has reached 40% of the same group.
  • Tribal regions, being economically backward, show the vast reach of mass media in both rural and urban areas.
  • Radio broadcasts are available in English and major Indian languages and dialects, covering a wide range of themesincluding social, cultural, and political topics.
  • Programmes targeting youth and women have been instrumental in promoting social change.
  • However, some radio and television programmes promote conservative and status quo ideas.
  • Cinema is a popular and affordable form of entertainment, with a stronger impact than radio due to its audio-visualnature.
  • Cinema promotes cultural change by influencing modes of dress, hairstyles, language, manners, and social norms.
  • Desensitization to violence is attributed to the influence of cinema.
  • Serious and socially concerned cinema (often called art cinema or parallel cinema) promotes ideas such as gender justice, women’s empowerment, anti-corruption, and social reform.
  • Tea stalls in rural markets, towns, and cities are popular places where people gather to discuss news and engage in debates, becoming informal opinion makers for the wider public.
  • Mass media messages are mass-produced and reach millions of people through audio and audio-visual innovations.
  • The advent of Cable TV has introduced channels focused on spiritualism and religion, which may promote obscurantism and religiosity, potentially hindering cultural modernism.
  • The mass media in India is like a double-edged sword; while it has an educative and entertaining role, it can also promote irrationality, superstitions, and status quo ideas.
  • Since mass media has become indispensable, there is a need for proper planning to use it as an effective tool for social change.