Ancient History – 3rd Year
Paper – I (Short Notes)
Unit I
Language/भाषा
The customs, traditions, attitudes, values, norms, ideas and symbols govern human behaviour pattern.
The members of society not only endorse them but also mould their behaviour accordingly. They are the members of the society because of the traditions and customs which are common and which are passed down from generation to generation through the process of socialisation. These common patterns designate culture and it is in terms of culture that we are able to understand the specific behaviour pattern of human beings in their social relations. Cultural ideas emerge from shared social life.
Meaning of Culture
Sometimes an individual is described as “a highly cultured person”, meaning thereby that the person in question has certain features such as his speech, manner, and taste for literature, music or painting which distinguish him from others. Culture, in this sense, refers to certain personal characteristics of a individual. However, this is not the sense in which the word culture is used and understood in social sciences.
Sometimes culture is used in popular discourse to refer to a celebration or an evening of entertainment, as when one speaks of a ‘cultural show’. In this sense, culture is identified with aesthetics or the fine arts such as dance, music or drama. This is also different from the technical meaning of the word culture.
Culture is used in a special sense in anthropology and sociology. It refers to the sum of human beings’ life ways, their behaviour, beliefs, feelings, thought; it connotes everything that is acquired by them as social beings.
Culture has been defined in number of ways. There is no consensus among sociologists and anthropologists regarding the definition of culture. One of the most comprehensive definitions of the term culture was provided by the British anthropologist Edward Tylor. He defined culture as ” that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.
There are some writers who add to this definitions some of the important” other capabilities and habits” such as language and the techniques for making and using tools. Culture consists of all learned, normative behaviour patterns – that is all shared ways or patterns of thinking and feeling as well as doing.
Some of the thinkers include in culture only the nonmaterial parts. For instance, Sutherland and Wood word say, “If culture exists only where there is communication then the content of culture can be ideas or symbol patterns. Culture is then an immaterial phenomenon only, a matter of thoughts and meanings and habits and not of visible and touchable material things or objects”.
The “material elements that are made and used in accordance with socially inherited tradition” should be called culture objects. Others include in culture all the major social components that bind men together in society. For instance, the British anthropologist Malinowski included ‘inherited, artifacts, implements and consumer goods’ and ‘social structure’ within his definition of culture.
It is, Cooley, Argell and Car say,
“The entire accumulation of artificial objects, conditions, tools, techniques, ideas, symbols and behaviour patterns peculiar to a group of people, possessing a certain consistency of its own, and capable of transmission from one generation to another.”
Some of the other important definitions of culture are as follows. “Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and our thinking. Intercourse in our literature, in religion, in recreation and enjoyment, says Maclver.
According to E.A. Hoebel,
“Culture is the sum total of integrated learned behaviour patterns which are characteristics of the members of a society and which are therefore not the result of biological inheritance.”
“Culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and have as members of society”, says Bierstedt. “Culture is the total content of the physio-social, bio-social and psycho-social universe man has produced and the socially created mechanisms through which these social product operate”, According to Anderson and Parker.
Mlinowlski defines culture” as the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.
According to H.T. Mazumadar,
“culture is the sum total of human achievements, material as well as non-material, capable of transmission, sociologically, i.e., by tradition and communication, vertically as well as horizontally”.
Combining several of these definitions, we may define culture as the sum-total of human achievements or the total heritage of man which can be transmitted to men by communication and tradition. It is a way of life of the people in a certain geographical area. Life style and social pattern of a society being the direct consequence of the accumulated heritage of ages past distinguish and differentiate one community from another.
Culture therefore, is moral, intellectual and spiritual discipline for advancement, in accordance with the norms and values based on accumulated heritage. It is imbibing and making ours own, the life style and social pattern of the group one belongs to. Culture is a system of learned behaviour shared by and transmitted among the members of the group.
Culture is a collective heritage learned by individuals and passed from one generation to another. The individual receives culture as part of social heritage and in turn, may reshape the culture and introduce changes which then become part of the heritage of succeeding generations.
Characteristics of Indian Culture
Introduction
India has a long history unlike many other countries in the world. The ancient Civilization of India differs from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece, in that its traditions have been preserved without a break down to the present day. India has a Culture fully conscious of its own antiquity–a culture which indeed exaggerated the unity, and claimed not to have fundamentally changed for many thousands of years.
One of the defects of our history is the absence of any regular historical Chronicle. Prof R.C. Majumdar wrote in the 1950s that “Prior to the 13th century C.E we possess no historical text of any kind , much less such a detailed narrative as we possess in the case of Greece ,Rome or China“. He cited the 13th century because that was when Northern India, succumbing to Muslim rule, attracted the attention of Persian writers keen to chronicle the triumphs of Islam. Even Alberuni who visited India along with Muhammad of Ghazni said the Hindus do not pay much attention to the historical order of things; they are very careless in relating to the chronological succession of kings. Therefore, we have to depend upon a large number of sources for the reconstruction of History and Culture. But prior to pre-Islamic Civilization, for more than 80% of attestable Indian history there were no histories.
The literary genius of India, so fertile and active in almost all branches of study, was somewhat not applied to chronicling the records of kings and rise and fall of the dynasties. However, the only concrete result of historical study in the most ancient period is to be found in the long lists of kings preserved in the Puranas and Epics.
Pargiter was the first to make a bold attempt to coordinate the varying details of the Royal dynasties before the Mahabharata war .Various attempts were made after him to recover the past history with the help of available sources. Yet we are not in a position to firmly grasp to continuity of political history of India up to the beginning of the 6th century BCE. From this century onwards the sources of Ancient Indian History are increasingly available.
Efforts were made by the British to explore and interpret the history of India. In the end of 17th century C.E. a few Jesuit fathers succeeded in mastering Sanskrit, the classical language of India. Europeans made no real attempt to study India’s ancient past, and her early history was known only from brief passages in the works of Greek and Latin authors till the last half of the 18th century C.E. A few devoted missionaries in the Peninsula gained a deep understanding of contemporary Indian life, and a brilliant mastery of the vernaculars.
The definite results in this field were made by Sir William Jones, a linguistic genius, who was posted as the Judge of the Supreme Court at Calcutta. Before coming to India, Jones had already learnt all the important European languages as well as Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, Turkish and has recognized the relationship of European languages to Persian.
In the year 1784 William Jones with help of Charles Wilkins founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal. In the journal of this society ‘Asiatic Researches’, the first real steps in realizing the India’s past were taken. Jones himself translated the Kalidasa’s ‘Sakuntala‘, and ‘Gitagovinda‘ in 1792.
Charles Wilkins, has taken up the first translation of a Sanskrit work, ‘Bhagavatgita’ into English in 1784, followed by ‘Hitopadesa‘ in 1787. Several important translations appeared in successive issues of the journal of ‘Asiatic Researches’. Thus Jones and Wilkins were truly the fathers of Indology.
They were followed by many pioneers like a Frenchman, Anquetil-Duperron, a Persian scholar, published the translation of Upanishads in 1801. Interest in Sanskrit literature began to grow in Europe as a result of these translations.
Another notable contribution was made by Max Muller, a German scholar, who spent most of his working life as a Professor of Comparative Philology at Oxford. He translated the ‘Rigveda ‘ and also the great series of ‘Sacred Books of the East’ in English.
James Princep, an official of the Calcutta Mint and the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, interpreted for the first time the earliest Brahmi script and was able to read the edicts of Asoka in 1837. He was assisted by Alexander Cunningham, a young officer of the Royal Engineers.
The literary efforts created curiosity amongst scholars and adventurers to probe further into the History and Culture of India. It resulted in the establishment of Archaeological department in the year 1862. Alexander Cunningham was appointed as the head of the Archaeological Survey. He devoted every minute he could spare from his duties to the study of the material remains of Ancient India from 1862 to 1885. He is regarded as the father of Indian Archaeology.
Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India has reformed and enlarged the Archaeological Survey of India in 1902 and appointed Sir John Marshall as the Director–General. He was able to employ a number of expert assistants and excavated and discovered the world -famous sites of Harappa and Mohenjodaro representing the Indus Civilization in 1922. With the revival of the Archaeological Survey of India, its different activities like the excavations, explorations, Epigraphy, Numismatics, monuments etc have been taken up on serious note and these activities have proved useful for the reconstruction of Indian history.
Sources for the Study of Indian History
Several sources have contributed for the study of Indian History and Culture. These sources are conventionally divided into two categories – Literary and Archaeological. From a historian’s point of view, literary sources include all texts – long or short, written or oral, archaeological sources include all tangible material remains.
The Archaeological material includes Stone tools, Iron/Copper tools, Inscriptions, Numismatics, Monuments etc.
The literary sources can be divided into indigenous and foreign. The indigenous sources are further sub divided into religious and secular. The religious literature includes the Brahaminical, Buddhist and Jain texts.
Literary Sources for Ancient Indian History
Religious Literature
The first literary sources of India are the Samhitas, which includes four Vedas. Rig Veda is the most ancient of the Vedas and the first sacred record of historical importance. The Rig Veda mainly contains prayers, while the later Vedic texts comprise not only prayers but also rituals, magic and mythological stories. However, the Upanishads contain Philosophical speculations.
The Rig Veda provides us the information about the history and political system of the Aryans. The later Vedas, Brahmanas, Aryankas, Upanishads, Vedangas reveal the remarkable changes that the Aryan society undergone subsequently. In the course of time, special schools of thought came into existence for the systematic study of the various branches of Vedic literature.
The Smritis viz., Manu, Yagnavalkya, Brihaspati and Narada reveal us the social and religious conditions of India between 200 BCE to 600 CE.
The two epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are useful for knowing the living conditions of the Aryans during the later Vedic Age.
The Puranas provide dynastic history of ancient India after the war of Mahabharat upto the beginning of the Gupta rule. The Puranas have accounts of mountains, rivers and places, which are also useful for the study of historical geography.
Buddhist Literature
The sacred scriptures of the Buddhists are in Pali. Early Buddhist literature is generally divided into canonical and non-canonical text. Canonical texts are the books which lay down the basic tenets and principles of Buddism. The Buddhist canonical literature is commonly referred to as Tripitakas.
The Tripitakas are: (i) Vinaya Pitaka, (ii) Sutta Pitaka , (iii) Abhidhamma Pitaka.
- The Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations which the Buddha promulgated for the future discipline of the order of monks and nuns.
- The Sutta Pitaka consists chiefly of discourses, both small and long as delivered by the Buddha himself on various occasions.
- The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s teachings.
Afterwards, the Mahayana and the Tantrika sects of Buddhism created vast religious literature. The Jataka stories (549 in number) deal with the previous births of Buddha. These Buddhist Jatakas throws invaluable light on social and economic condition of the period.
No-canonical Buddhist literature in Pali includes the Milinda Panha which consists of a dialogue on various philosophical issues between king Milinda (Menander) and the monk Nagasena.
The Srilankan Chronicles – the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa contain a historical-cum-mythical account of a Buddha’s life, the Buddhist councils, the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, the kings of Srilanka and the arrival of Buddhism on that Island. They also make incidental references to political events in the age of Buddha. The works of Nagarjuna, Asanga, Buddhagosha and the literary work Lalitavistara contain many historical and geographical references.
Jaina literature
The Jain literature is written in the Ardha – Magadhi form of Prakrit and known as twelve Angas, compiled in 6th century CE. They contain many historical statements and references to princes and kingdoms of North India during the time of Mahavira. The Jaina texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
In the field of non-canonical literature, commentaries to the canonical texts form the most significant part. They also include stories, historical works like. Bhadrabhahucharita, Parishtaparvan of Hemachandra, semi historical works like Prabandha Chintamani of Merutunga etc.
Secular literature
The secular literature of ancient India is vast. It includes biographical works of historical persons, historical texts, literary compositions, Dharma sutras (Law Books) and writings of foreigners. Pure literary works as dramas and poems and works on polity, economy and even grammar carried out by the scholars of Ancient India are also of valuable help in the reconstructing history and culture.
The most important book under this category is Arthasastra of Kautilya. It is a comprehensive treatise on state craft and public administration. It provides rich material for the study of ancient Indian polity and economy. The similarities between the administrative terms used in the Arthasastra and in the Ashokan Edicts would certainly suggest that the Mauryan rulers were acquainted with this work.
Similarly, the Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadatta and Kathasarithsagar of Kshamendra provide useful information concerning the period of Mauryas.
The Mahabhasya of Pathanjali and the Malavikagnamitram of Kalidasa, Mrichakatika of Sudraka, the Dasakumaracharitha of Dandi, Nitasara of Kamandaka throws useful light on the contemporary history and culture.
The works of Kalidasa include Abhijnanasakuntala, Vikramorvashiya, Raghuvamsa, Kumara sambhava and Meghaduta provide us with glimpses of the social and cultural life in the age of the Guptas.
The courts of early medieval kings attracted writers and poets, some of them were biographical compositions in praise of their royal patrons. The contemporary biographical works also provide good information on political history. The famous Sanskrit biographic writings include Bhanabhatta’s Harshacharita about king Harshavardhana. Vakpati wrote the Prakrit Gandavaha about Yashovarman of Kanauj. Bilhana’ s Vikramankadevacharita is woven around the Chalukya kings, especially Vikramaditya VI. Kumaraphalacharita of Jayasimha, Navashankacharita of Padmagupta, Prithvirajacharitha of Chand Bardai are the other important similar examples.
The best example of the earliest historical writing is provided by the Rajatarangini or ‘The stream of kings’ written by Kalhana in the twelfth century, Kalhana is often described as India’s first historian. His work gave a connected account of the kings of Kashmir from the early ones of legend to the historical rulers of the 12th century. He described the natural beauty of Kashmir with pride and feeling, wove lively character sketches and gave dramatic description of political events.
In addition to Sanskrit sources, we have some of the earliest Tamil text found in the corpus of Sangam literature. This was produced over a period of three to four centuries by the poets who assembled in colleges, patronized by chiefs and kings. The Sangam literature throw light on the political, social, religious and cultural history of south India during Pandya, Chera and Chola ages.
Foreign Accounts
Indigenous literature can be supplemented by foreign accounts. The Greek, Roman and Chinese visitors came to India either as travelers or religious converts and they left behind accounts of the things that they saw. The earliest references to India in Greek texts date from the 5th century BCE and their frequency increases thereafter.
One of the most famous works is the Indica of Megasthenes; ambassador of Seleucus Nikator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. This work furnishes valuable information not only about the system of Mauryan administration but also about social classes and economic activities in the Maurya period;
The many Greek and Latin texts of the 2nd century BCE to 2nd century AD referring to India include the works of Arrian, Strabo and Pliny and the anonymous Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. They provide valuable data for the study of ancient geography and commerce. Pliny’s Natural History tells us about trade between India and Italy.
Many Chinese monks made long and arduous overland Journeys to India, crossing mountains, plateaus and deserts in order to collect authentic manuscripts of Buddhist texts, meet Indian monks and visit places of Buddhist learning and pilgrimage. The best known among those who wrote accounts of their Indian travels are Fahien and Hiuen Tsang. They came to India in 5th and 7th century AD respectively. Fahien describes the social, religious and economic conditions of India in the age of the Guptas. Hiuen Tsang presents a similar account of India in the age of Harsha.
The series of Arab accounts starts with the Islamic advent of India in 8th century CE. Among the Muslim writers, Sulaiman and Al Masudi left brief records of India. Abu Rihan or Al Beruni, a native of Khwarizm was one of the greatest intellectuals of early medieval times came to India with Sultan Mahmmud of Ghazni wrote authentic account on India in the 11th Century CE. His work Tahqiq-i-Hind covers a large number of topics including Indian scripts, sciences, geography, astronomy, astrology, philosophy, literature, beliefs, customs, religions, festivals, rituals, social organization and law.
Literary sources of the Medieval Period
The history of Medieval India is the story of continuous adjustments and mutual influences in the midst of many conflicts between different cultures with well marked traits of their own. The Muslim conquest of North India was affected towards the end of 12th century. The medieval period is characterized by the rise and fall of the Delhi Sultanate, formation of Vijayanagar empire, independent Bahmani kingdom in the South and the Mughal empire. Fortunately for the medieval period, there is abundant literary source material.
Delhi Sultanate
The fundamental Persian chroniclers of the Turkish period are Amir Khusrau, Barani, Isami, Wassaf, Shamsi – Siraj Afif, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ferishta and others.
The important works of the chroniclers are :
- Chachnama of Muhammad Ali-Bin-Abu Bakar gives us a brief account of Sindh before Qasims Invasion.
- Tarik-i-Sindh of Mir Muhammad Kasim describes the history of Sindh from Arab conquest to Akbar.
- Tabqat-i-Nasiri of Minhajuddin gives an account of Muhammad Ghor conquest of India and after.
- Amir Krushrau, ‘the prince of poets’ was the poet Laureate rose to fame under Balban, served the Khiljis, and lived to enjoy the patronage of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. His prose work, the Khazain-universal-Futuh is the official history Alauddin’s campaigns. His works are of special importance since he was an eye witness to most of the events.
- Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi of Barani is the history of the Delhi Sultanate from Balban to Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
- Iban battuta, a famous Moorish traveler visited India during Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. His account of the Delhi Sultanate from Qutubuddin aibak to Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq is largely a result of his experience and acquaintances in India.
- Among writers of other historical works the most distinguished were Minhaj-us-Siraj, the author of Tabakat-i-Firoz Shahi, Ghulan Yahya bin Ahmad, the author of Trit-i-Mubarak Shahi.
- Ferishta is the prince of Muslim historians, gives general history of the Muslim rule in India.
Sources of the Vijayanagar empire
For the study of Vijayanagar empire, we have good number of sources. The contemporary writers both native and foreign, Muslim historians, Hindu Chroniclers and the compilers of the village Kaviles and Kaifiats furnish the historian amply with information about the role of the empire in South India.
- Vidhyaranya’s-kalagnana, Mathuravijayam, Saluvavamsabhyudayam, Amuktamalyada, krishnarayavijayam, Varadambikaparinayam, Achyutaramabhyudayam, the works of Asthadiggajas are the mines of historical information.
The rise of Vijayanagar in the 14th century and of the Portuguese power attracted many foreigners to India and as consequence foreign evidence on South India increases vastly in volume, variety and interest.
- Nicole de Conti, a Venetian merchant, visited Vijayanagar and gives a description of the Vijayanagar Court and festivals, currency and other matters.
- Athanasias Nikitin, a Russian merchant, describes the conditions of the Bahmani kingdom under Muhammad III. It is an eyewitness account and is valuable.
- Abdur Razzaq the Persian ambassador visited the Vijayanagar empire and witnessed the Mahanavami Festival. He gives a graphic picture of this great city with its fortifications, palaces, temples and other public buildings, administration and social life of South India 15th Century.
- During the first quarter of the 16th century the Italian Ludovico de Varthema, the Portuguese Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz visited Vijayanagar empire and left valuable accounts of South India.
The Mughal Period
The Mughal period forms one of the most glorious chapters in the annals of medieval India. No period of Indian history is so rich in its sources as the age of Mughals. Many of the Mughal emperors were themselves men of letters and left us their records of events. Moreover the Mughal rulers regularly maintained court historiographers and encouraged them to write the official histories of their times.
- The autobiographies of Babar and Jahanghir, the official histories of Abul Fazal (Akbarnama, Aini Akbari) the letters of Aurangazeb, Jaisingh are the official and authentic sources of important event for the Mughal period.
The accounts of the Jesuits provide valuable information on some aspects of Indian history.
- Father Anthony Monserrate’s commentary throws much light on some aspects of Akbar’s administration.
- Father Pinheiro visited the Mughal court during the last years of Akbar and early years of Jahangir. He was the first to take deep interest in the common man.
The next source of information concerning the Mughal period is to be found in writings of the foreign travelers and merchants who visited and resided in the Mughal court.
- Ralph Fitch, the pioneer English visitor to India has described Akbar’s court and the cities of Agra and Fatehpur Sikri.
- William Hawkins came on a trade mission and has left an eyewitness account of Jahangir’s daily life, the Nauroj ceremony and court life.
- Henry Middleton has left a detailed account of the trade and administration of the port of Surat.
- Sir Thomas Roe was sent as ambassador by James I of England to the court of Jahangir. His description of the cities and of the Mughal emperor and princes is quite interesting.
- The English Factor Peter Munday gave eye-witness accounts of local administration and of the river transport system and incidentally of the excellent inter-communal relations.
- Jean Baptiste Tavernier, a diamond merchant gave valuable account of the cities and towns and the contemporary trade.
- Thevenot has left an account of towns, ports, customs, and the administrative and revenue systems.
- Sir William Norris was an envoy on behalf of East India Company to the court of Aurangzeb to secure the most favourable conditions for English trade. His account of South Indian towns and the Mughal court is another valuable source of information.
All these sources are of undoubted value as they throw light on the political history, conditions of the people, the state of trade and industry and history of religious institutions in medieval India.
Source of Modern Period
There is plenty of literary source material on British period. The records that are preserved at the Indian office library (London), National Archives of India, Madras records office contain much information about the rise and fall of British power in India. Many servants of the English East India Company have left accounts of their travel. The biographies of National leaders and others are of great value for the history of freedom movement.
Archival Sources
Archives, public as well as private, form the most valuable source material for the study of Indian history. For ancient India, archives are not available. Paper began to be used in medieval India for recording public business and for correspondence, but very few records of the pre-Mughal period have survived. Even the Mughal archives are not available in regular series, since they were lost or dispersed during the period of the disintegration of the empire. The available archival material for the British period is copious and rich. They provide information on every aspect of Indian history – political, administrative, constitutional, economic, social, cultural and religious – from the early days of the English settlements in India to the last days of the Raj.
Archieves of the Central Government
The Archives of the government of India, mostly deposited in the National Archives of India, New Delhi are of prime value for the study of modern Indian history. It offers source material on varied aspects of Indian history for the past two centuries. These records provide information on commercial transactions of the East India company, the conquest of Bengal, the struggle with the Marathas, the annexation of Burma etc. The constitutional changes since the Regulating act of 1773, the emergence of a centralized system of government and the evolution of the company’s administrative system can be studied in detail and with accuracy in the records of the Public Department.
The Famine series are of importance for an objective assessment of the nature and extent of recurring famines in India can be examined with the help of the evidence available among the proceedings of the Public, Judicial and legislative departments.
The papers bearing on the emergence of the nationalist movement are to be found initially among the public series of the Home Department records but in 1907 a new series of records – Home Political – was started to deal exclusively with political and communal questions.
State Archives
The archives of the states are also valuable for the history of India. The collections in the state Archives comprise the records of
- The former British Indian provinces
- The erstwhile princely states merged in the Indian union after independence and
- The foreign administrations other than those of the English.
The Archives of the now defunct princely states are valuable for the history of each of these states and their relations with the paramount power. The largest and the richest of this class of archives are those of the defunct state of Hyderabad.
Among the archives of the former British Indian Provinces, those of the three Presidencies – Bengal, Madras and Bombay are pre-eminent.
The early records of Fort William were lost during the sack of Calcutta in 1756, but the archives of the Presidency after the English success at Plassey survived in more or less complete series.
The archives of Madras deal with many areas now outside the Madras state. Materials of vital significance are also available there on the history of the states of Travancore, Cochin, Mysore and Hyderabad.
The archives of Bombay Presidency are indispensable for the history of western India including Maharashtra, Gujarat, Sind, and the Kannada speaking districts of the Presidency of Bombay which were incorporated in Mysore in 1956.
Judicial Records
The archives of judicial courts constitute another class of valuable source material for Indian history. These records offer, in addition to evidence of primary importance on the development of judicial administration, significant data on the economic and social conditions of different classes of people. The earliest among the available judicial archives are those of the Mayor’s court at Fort St. George, beginning from 1689 AD and now in the custody of the Madras record office.
Private Archives
These comprise the papers of individuals and families of note who played a significant note in the development of modern India, business and industrial corporations and institutions, societies and associations devoted to political, educational, social religious and cultural activities.
The history of Indian struggle for independence can be enriched by the use of the papers of eminent leaders of the nationalist movement and records of organizations like the Indian National Congress which are available at the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi.
Archaeological Sources
The science which enables us to dig the old mounds in a systematic manner, in successive layers, and to form an idea of the material life of the people is called Archaeology. Archaeological material which can be utilized for the reconstruction of history may be grouped under the following heads:
- Material remains
- Inscriptions
- Coins
Material Remains
The ancient Indian left innumerable material remains. The earliest traces of human existence in India, so far discovered, go back to the period between 3,00,000 and 2,00,000 BCE. A large number of primitive stone tools found in the Soan valley in North India and at Attirampakkam in the South India suggest this fact.
Initially the Paleolithic man was preparing tools and implements of rough stone and was essentially a food gatherer and depended on the nature for his food. He was a semi-nomad and was living under the rock shelters.
In the Neolithic period, the man began to domesticate the animals and cultivate plants, lived in huts and settled in groups in villages. During this time he prepared sharp and pointed tools for killing the fast moving animals.
Towards the end of the Neolithic period metals like copper, iron and bronze began to be used. This period was known as Chalcolithic period which was noticed in the excavations of several sites.
Unlike the more advanced stages, for which various types of sources are available, the study of the initial stages of human history is based entirely on the material remains left by early man.
When Archaeologists and Historians speak of the prehistoric stages in man’s past, they refer to the period when the primitive man was primarily a food gatherer or had just begun a settled life and for which no written records are available. The material remains of early man, available mostly in the form of stone tools and sometimes with the remains of the animal he hunted; do not speak comprehensively about his life. However, the basic information provided by the tools of early man, his habitat, about the communities still in the initial stages of social development, have led to certain conclusions about variations even in the earliest cultures and the cultural zones. Reconstructing the past from such reluctant materials can be intensely exciting, but it is not easy.
The establishment of Archaeological survey of India in 1862 and its revival and expansion by Lord Curzon in 1902 ,the appointment of Sir John Marshall as the Director General, paved the way for several scientific excavations in India. Marshall excavated and discovered the Indus civilization of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Since then several ancient sites and mounds have been excavated by several archaeologists both British and Indian and added valuable information to the Indian history.
During the 20th century the discovery of Ajanta and Ellora and other caves, temples, Buddhist Stupas, Viharas, sites pertaining to Ramayana and Mahabharata have been studied and interpreted by several foreign and Indian scholars and added interesting and hitherto unknown information to our knowledge of the Indian history.
The Monuments are underlying witness of the artistic skill of India in various fields and testify its wealth and grandeur at different epochs of history. Different stupas, chaityas, temples, pillars, wall paintings, statues, forts, palaces, ornaments have been found in different places in India. They constitute one of the most important sources of the information regarding the cultural history of Ancient and Medieval of India.
By utilizing all these available sources it has been possible to throw light on the culture and civilization of India since 3rd minimum BCE.
Inscriptions
An inscription is any writing that is engraved on stone, wood, metal, ivory plaques, bronze statues, bricks, clay shells, pottery, etc. The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy.
The inscriptions, being contemporary records, have proved a source of the highest value for the reconstruction of the political and cultural history of Ancient and Medieval India. Inscriptions include the stone inscriptions and the copper plate grants issued by several Rulers or their subordinate Kings, Generals, Ministers etc
Though, the earliest recorded evidence of writing can be seen on the seals and sealing’s of the Harappan culture, these writings are yet to be deciphered. Several Indian and Western scholars have attempted to read these writings but in vain.
The earliest deciphered inscriptions belong to Mauryan emperor Ashoka, which are in different languages and scripts. Ashokan inscriptions were first deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep, a civil servant in the employ of the East Indian Company in Bengal.
In the 3 rd century B.C, a single language, Prakrit, suffice to bring the message of a royal missionary to the doors of his humblest subjects throughout this vast sub-continent. So far about 33 Edicts and inscriptions of Asoka have been found incised on pillars, Cave walls and boulders including the bilingual (Greek & Aramaic) at Kandahar. These Edicts describe in detail the Asoka’ s views about DHAMMA, an earnest attempt to solve some problems that a complex society faced. The inscriptions show the efforts to develop Buddhist Dhamma throughout his vast empire. In these Edicts Asoka refers himself as “Beloved of the Gods” (Devanampiydasi). The inscriptions found in the Eastern part of India were written in Magadhi Prakrit using the Brahmi script. The scripts in use at that time were Brahmi, Kharosti and Armaic Greek, the former being the most developed and used script in his empire.
The Asokan Edicts are followed by the stone inscriptions pertaining to Satavahanas in the South and Sungas in the North India. The inscriptions issued by the Satavahanas are found near the Buddhist monuments, religious institutions and record the donation made to them by kings or queens. These inscriptions are in Brahmi script and the language was Sanskrit. These inscriptions refer the name of the king, his titles, geneology of the dynasty and the year of its issue. These inscriptions reflect the social, economic and religious conditions prevailing in the respective empire.
Some inscriptions are in eulogized, recording the achievements of kings and conquests. To this category belongs the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta, the Hathigumpta inscription of Kharavela, the Nasik inscription of Balasri, the Girnar inscription of Rudradaman, the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II etc.
Inscriptions began to be composed in regional languages in the ninth and tenth centuries.
The Copper-plate grants usually record the gifts to groups of scholars or individuals for advancement of education or for meritorious services to the kingdom. The inscriptions are incised in the languages like Sanskrit, Pali in the early years and later in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Bengali, Oriya, Devnagari, Magadhi, Gujarati and other Indian languages and in Persian, Arabic and Urdu by Muslim kings. The copper- plates are secured to a copper ring and contains the royal seal either on the ring itself or on the top of the plate..
The Muslim kings that ruled parts of the Deccan like Adilshahis, Bahmanis, Baridshahis, Imamshahis, Qutubshahis, Mughals, Mysore Nawabs, Asafjahis etc erected inscriptions at various places and issued Firmans and Sanads as commendation for the meritorious services. These inscriptions, Sanads / Firmans were either in Arabic or Persian or in Urdu languages.
The donatives records refer, especially to gifts of money, cattle, land etc. for religious purposes. Inscriptions recording land grants, made by chiefs and princes which are very important for the study of the land system and administration. They also furnished us with the names of kings, boundaries of kingdoms, useful dates and clues to many important events of history.
The inscriptions of the private individuals are mainly engraved in temples or images of stones or metals. They have provided us information concerning dates of construction of temples, the development of Art and Architecture and temple cultures of different regions.
Thus, the inscriptions have been found very useful information in finding different facts of the history of Ancient and Medieval India.
Coins
Numismatics is the science of the study of coins. The coins played an important role for the reconstruction of the Indian History and Culture. Before the coins were introduced the bartering system (Exchange of goods) was prevalent in ancient India.
The Punch-marked coins were the first coins, made in silver and copper, were in circulation during the period of Mahajanapadas.
Coins made of several metals like gold, silver, copper and other metals of different periods are discovered in various parts of Indian subcontinent.
All the important dynasties of ancient and medieval India had their own coinage. Most of them were issued by rulers and contain dates, figures of the rulers or gods and goddesses
The vast variety of coins issued by the Indo- Greeks, Sakas, Satavahanas, Kushans, Guptas etc; help us not only to build up the history of respective times but also show the artistic excellence of their periods.
The flourishing state of maritime trade and commerce in ancient India is attested by the discovery of Roman gold coins.
The Delhi Sultans and Mughals have introduced standardization in their currency.
The British Indian coins and currency contain the portrait of King or queen of England, the year and place of mint in different Indian languages .Subsequently paper currency was also introduced by British-India.
- Coins help us to fix up Indian chronology in different periods
- The legends on coins give information on the history of languages and scripts
- The vast circulation of gold and silver coins testifies the economic prosperity
- The area of circulation of coins is often used to estimate the extent and frontiers of empires
- Most of the Indo-Greek, Parthian, Saka and Kushana kings are known almost entirely from their coins.
- The depiction of deities on coins provides information about the religious preferences of kings, royal religious policy and the history cults.
Indian culture, one of the world’s oldest and most vibrant, is a living testament to the principle of “Unity in Diversity.” This concept, deeply rooted in India’s ancient history, has shaped the nation’s social, cultural, and political fabric. The ability of diverse traditions, religions, languages, and ethnicities to coexist harmoniously has been a hallmark of Indian civilization.
Origins of Unity in Diversity in Ancient India
The seeds of India’s cultural unity were sown in its ancient past, where a shared worldview emerged despite regional and societal differences. One of the earliest expressions of this unity is found in the Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE), which displayed a uniformity in urban planning, trade practices, and religious symbolism across vast regions, from Mohenjo-Daro in present-day Pakistan to Lothal in Gujarat. This shared cultural foundation persisted even after the decline of the Indus cities.
The Vedic period (1500–600 BCE) further reinforced cultural unity through common religious texts, rituals, and philosophical ideas. The Vedas, Upanishads, and epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata became the bedrock of a shared Indian identity, transcending regional and linguistic barriers. The Sanskrit language, the liturgical and scholarly medium of the time, served as a unifying force that linked diverse communities, creating a common intellectual and spiritual heritage.
Religious Pluralism in Ancient India
Religious diversity has been a defining feature of Indian culture, yet ancient India excelled in fostering tolerance and synthesis. The emergence of Buddhism and Jainism (6th century BCE) alongside Vedic Hinduism is a prime example of this coexistence. While Buddhism and Jainism critiqued certain Vedic practices, such as animal sacrifice, they borrowed and adapted philosophical concepts like karma, dharma, and moksha from the Vedic tradition.
King Ashoka the Great (268–232 BCE), a Mauryan emperor, exemplified this synthesis. After converting to Buddhism, Ashoka promoted religious tolerance through his edicts, which advocated respect for all sects and emphasized values like nonviolence and compassion. His rock and pillar inscriptions are evidence of his vision of unity, as they were written in multiple scripts and languages to reach diverse populations.
Cultural Syncretism and Artistic Unity
Indian art, architecture, and literature reflect the interplay of regional styles and pan-Indian themes. The stupas, chaityas, and viharas built during the Mauryan and Gupta periods show how Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain traditions often influenced one another. For instance, the Ajanta and Ellora caves (2nd century BCE to 6th century CE) house both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples, showcasing the mutual respect and artistic collaboration between these traditions.
The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century CE), often regarded as a “Golden Age” of Indian culture, epitomized cultural unity amidst diversity. While the Guptas were patrons of Hinduism, they also supported Buddhism and Jainism. Sanskrit literature, including Kalidasa’s works and legal texts like the Manusmriti, flourished during this period and contributed to a shared cultural ethos.
Linguistic and Literary Diversity
Ancient India was home to a plethora of languages, including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, and Tamil. Despite this linguistic diversity, there was a remarkable degree of cultural exchange. For instance, Sanskrit texts were translated into regional languages, and Tamil Sangam literature incorporated ideas from Sanskritic traditions. The coexistence of multiple languages enriched Indian culture, making it inclusive and adaptable.
Social Structure and Integration
While the varna system (social order) is often critiqued for its rigidity, it also facilitated a certain degree of social integration in ancient India. The system allowed for specialization of labor and the coexistence of various occupational groups. Over time, the flexibility of caste identities, particularly in the early periods, enabled diverse communities to find their place within the larger social framework.
Trade and Economic Unity
India’s vast trade networks in ancient times also contributed to its cultural unity. The Silk Road, maritime trade routes, and regional markets connected people across the subcontinent and beyond. Trade facilitated the exchange of ideas, goods, and technologies, such as the spread of Indian numerals and the decimal system. Economic interdependence thus reinforced the sense of belonging to a shared cultural and geographical space.
Philosophical and Spiritual Unity
Ancient Indian philosophy emphasized universal values like dharma (righteousness), ahimsa (nonviolence), and satya (truth). These principles were not confined to any one religious tradition but were embraced by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism alike. Texts like the Bhagavad Gita and the Dhammapada reflect a shared ethical framework that transcended sectarian boundaries. The concept of a cyclical worldview—with its emphasis on rebirth and liberation—further united diverse philosophical schools.
Enduring Legacy and Contemporary Relevance
The principle of unity in diversity has remained central to Indian culture, as it was deeply ingrained in its ancient foundations. The ability to accommodate differences without erasing them allowed India to develop a pluralistic society that valued coexistence. This legacy is evident even today in India’s linguistic federalism, religious pluralism, and the coexistence of traditional and modern lifestyles.
Conclusion
Unity in diversity is not merely a slogan in the Indian context; it is an enduring reality deeply rooted in its ancient history. From the shared rituals of the Vedic period to the architectural marvels of the Mauryan and Gupta eras, and the philosophical pluralism of Indian thought, ancient India demonstrated how diversity could coexist within a unified cultural framework. This unique characteristic continues to define India, making it a model for harmonious coexistence in an increasingly interconnected yet divided world.
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, is one of the most important periods in the history of India. It is one of the earliest civilizations of Near East and South Asia. The civilization lasted from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE and the major growth of IVC was seen between 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Based on this, the IVC era can be divided into three phases, including the Early Harappan Phase (3300-2600 BCE), the Mature Harappan Phase (2600-1750 BCE), and the Later Harappan Phase (1750-1300 BCE).
Indus Valley Civilization was the largest civilization at that time, covering the areas of northwestern & western India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
Characteristics of The Indus Valley Civilization
Named after the Indus River System, the Indus Valley Civilization was spread across a larger area as compared to the other contemporary civilizations. It covers almost 1,600 km (from east to west), and 1,400 km (from north to south). The people of IVC used to domesticate animals, practice agriculture, and have a great knowledge of architecture. Some most significant features of the Indus Valley Civilization are listed below:
1. Town Planning
The structures built on IVC sites say a lot about the architectural sense of the people living there. They used to live in well-built houses and practice some advanced methods for the conservation of resources. Here are some important facts you must know about their town planning:
- There is no evidence of temples, palaces, or pyramids. However, it has been found that the people of IVC followed a well-structured grid pattern to build houses.
- They were utility-driven and focused on minimizing resource wastage.
- They put major emphasis on sewer management, disaster management, and water conservation.
- The spatial distribution of the city is another important characteristic of the Indus Valley Civilization. The cities used to be either 2-fold or 3-fold. In a 2-fold city, there was a citadel for elite residents and a lower town for the normal people. On the other hand, a 3-fold city was divided into three parts, including the citadel, the middle town, and the lower town. Dholavira is an example of 3-fold city.
- The most widely used building materials in IVC include kiln-fired bricks, mud bricks, wood, and reeds.
- In every house, there used to be a courtyard surrounded by rooms. However, the number of rooms was found to be different at different sites.
- Every house had its own drainage system connecting to the street drains.
2. Agriculture
Arable agriculture and animal husbandry were among the major sources of economy for the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. The rivers of the area were either snow-fed or monsoon-fed. The annual floods occurring in the area were highly responsible for the fertility of the soil of the IVC area. Some additional points you must know about the agricultural practices performed during IVC are as follows:
- Irrigation and Water Conservation were among the most important activities performed by the locals of IVC.
- They used to grow cereals, pulses, cotton, and several other plants, including mustard, sesame, dates, and legumes.
- Evidence of rice cultivation was found in Lothal & Banawali and that of cotton in Lothal.
- Granaries were used to store agricultural surplus.
- Evidence of dairy farming has also been found in Kotada Badli of Gujarat.
3. Subsistence Base
The subsistence strategies of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization include the use of technology, agricultural surplus, animal husbandry, and tools. They used the technology of canals, dams, and reservoirs for irrigation. For agriculture, people of IVC were using wooden plough (found in Kalibhangan field). Apart from this, they were using tools made of copper, bronze, and stone. A large number of copper tools have been found in the initial stage of IVC.
They used to domesticate animals like dogs, buffalo, horses, cattles, etc. Though there is no surety about the domestication of horses, a horse has been found in Surkotada. Also, they used the bones of wild animals to make seals.
4. Religious Beliefs
There is no evidence of temples, other religious buildings, or priestly influence in the IVC. However, a seal mother Goddess (called the Fertility Cult) was found in Harappa, Mohenjaodaro, and Banawali. The seal shows a tree coming out of the womb of the Goddess. Therefore, it can be said that worship of mother Earth might have started in IVC. Along with this, a seal of the male God (called the Pashupati seal) has also been found.
The people of the Indus Valley Civilization also used to worship nature and animals, such as Peepal tree, Humped Bull, Snake, and Unicorn. Moreover, the Great Bath at Kalibangan was used for ritual ablution. The cylindrical seal and triangular cake at Kalibangan give evidence of people’s belief in human and animal sacrifice during the IVC era. For more information about the Religion of Indus Valley Civilization.
5. Trade & Commerce
The people of IVC were also well-versed in trade and commerce methods. Commercial activities were one of the primary reasons behind the flourishing economy of the Harappan civilization. The rural areas were linked with the urban areas due to agricultural surplus and raw materials. They also used to follow a barter system for the exchange of goods and sometimes seals as coins. The following are some of the most important goods (along with their major sources) that were traded during the IVC era:
- Gold from Kolar Mines
- Rice from Banawali
- Copper from Khetri Mines
- Cotton from Lothal and Sindh
- Sea-shell from Gujarat coasts
- Lead & Zinc from Rajasthan
- Tin from Haryana
- Lapis Lazuli (a colorful semi-precious stone) from Afghanistan
Indus Valley River
As you might be aware, the Harappan Civilization was named Indus Valley Civilization after the river Indus, which is a trans-Himalayan river of the South Asia. It is one of the longest rivers in the world with an annual flow of around 58 cubic miles. Located in the middle of Sindh and Punjab, Indus river is considered one of the primary factors responsible behind the rise of the greatest ancient civilization, i.e. the Indus Valley Civilization.
Due to the river, the soil of the nearby was extremely fertile, which influenced the rise of agriculture during the IVC. The river was also the major source of irrigation for the people of IVC. Another important role that the Indus river played in the development of mature harrapan phase was allowing for transportation of food and crops through it. The river was acting as a mode of transportation for different types of trading, including foreign trading, article trading, and agriculture trading.
Important Facts About Indus Valley Civilization
The period of IVC has always been an important topic for the UPSC CSE examination. From the UPSC point of view, you must be aware of the below-listed facts about the Indus Valley Civilization:
- The population of IVC was more than 5 million.
- It was John Marshell who excavated Harappa in 1920 and discovered that it was the first ever urban site.
- Mohenjadaro and Harappa are the capital cities of IVC.
- Sutkagendor, Balakot, Lothal, Allahdino, and Kuntasi are the port cities of IVC.
- IVC was the largest among the four civilizations of the world, the other three being Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China.
- Many archeologists also call it the ‘Indus-Saraswati Civilizations’ instead of IVC on the basis of the two river systems while others call it Harappan Civilization as Harappa was the first urban site to be discovered.
- Most of the IVC people were involved in artistic or trading activities.
- Though there were no temples or priestly influence during IVC, archeologists have found evidence of worship of nature and animals.
- The Great Bath (for ritual bathing), the Great Granary (for agricultural surplus), the Lothal Dockyard (for sea trade), and the Dholavira Reservoir (for irrigation) are some most important structures of IVC.
- The smallest site in the IVC was Allahdino.
Though there is no clarity about the center of power in IVC, it can be clearly seen that everything (from trade & commerce to agriculture, and other activities) was being managed very well. There might have been some type of government that instructed the public to perform tasks in a certain way. Trade and commerce were very well-regulated and might have been the biggest reason behind the flourishing economy of the civilization. Many urban settlements emerged even after the decline of IVC, but the legacy of the Indus Valley Civilization remains the same.
The Indus Valley civilization was primarily an urban civilization, with well-planned towns intended to meet the requirements of the people who lived in them as well as the physical and climatic constraints they encountered. Many writers have been interested in discovering predecessors to the religious rituals and deities of much later Indian faiths, therefore the religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people have gotten a lot of study. However, because of the scarcity of evidence, which is subject to several interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains untranslated.
Religious Practises of IVC
- It is true that the cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro flourished around 3000 BC.
- The fact that they were well-planned cities supports the argument that urban planning and the level of sophistication that went into its execution could not have been possible without corresponding development in various fields over several centuries.
- It’s questionable if the technology and expertise used to build such massive cities were entirely indigenous or imported.
- Some portions of understanding of base numbers, metallurgy, astrology, and some elements of Hinduism, yoga, and other schools of thought might have been left by this enormous and fascinating society.
- Many Harappan religious reconstructions are based on the premise that later traditions reveal similarities with earlier ones.
- This is due to the fact that archaeologists frequently shift from the known to the unknown, or from the present to the past.
- While this is feasible for stone quarns and pots, it becomes more speculative when applied to “religious” symbols.
Religious Beliefs of Indus People
- Along with male and female deities, the Indus people most likely worshipped Mother Goddess.
- They worshipped a father God who was likely a founder of the race and a prototype of Siva as the Lord of the Animals.
- They were familiar with some type of yoga and meditation.
- They believed in some form of tree of life, portrayed on seals as a Pipal or Acacia tree, protected by a guardian spirit against an evil power signified by a tiger.
- The guardian spirit is shown in seals as a bull, a serpent, a goat, a legendary creature, or an animal.
- They worshipped fertility symbols like round stones and perforated stones, which predated the worship of Siva and Parvathi in the form Sivalinga.
- They might have believed in magical rites, charms, and amulets, as well as ghosts and demons.
- They typically cremated the dead and left certain artefacts as offerings for their afterlives.
- The great bath of Mohenjo-Daro, or the much larger one discovered recently at the Dholavira site in Kutch, was most likely a prototype temple ponds, or sacred tank, found in ancient temples of southern India, where people might have taken purification baths or collectively participated in some kind of ritual bath on important occasions.
- The presence of baths and the presence of animals in the Indus seals imply that they may have utilised water and animals in sacrifice rituals as offerings or for expiation and ceremonial cleaning.
- Archaeologists have discovered no structures resembling temples, palaces, or monuments.
- In reality, most other modern civilisations have some sort of major monument.
- Despite the presence of granaries and public baths, the lack of a palace or temple led historians to think that the Indus Valley culture was egalitarian.
- They might have used their understanding of brick construction and geometric patterns to construct sacrifice altars.
- However, no sacrifice altars or pits have been discovered in the excavations at the Indus Valley sites.
Seals of IVC
- The Mohenjo-daro seal, also known as the “sacrifice” seal, of which only a few instances have been discovered, is widely assumed to depict a religious ceremony of some kind, however readings of the imagery and interpretations of the scene differ greatly.
- The majority of Indus seals portray a single animal with no evident narrative significance.
- Several are more sophisticated, with symbolic patterns and human or semi-human characters in action.
- A bull-man or bull-woman can be depicted fighting a spectacular horned beast with hooves, a tail, and massive horns.
- Men can be seen hiding in trees from tigers, while another can be seen fighting two tigers at once in a pattern reminiscent of the Master of Animals.
- It was thought to be one of the oldest portrayals of the Hindu god Shiva, with “Pashupati” (Lord of Animals) being one of his epithets, or a “proto-Shiva” deity.
- Though the mix of features in the Pashupati seal is unique, some of them can be found in other Indus seals.
Pasupathi seal
Advent of Vedic Culture
- The Indus people created a massive civilisation that inexplicably vanished by 1800 BC, only to be replaced by Vedic culture in portions of India.
- They were familiar with a written script that has yet to be deciphered and which they utilised in their seals.
- The Aryan colonisation of the Indo-Gangetic Plains marked the beginning of the Vedic Age.
- The Vedic Age lasted from 1500 BC until 600 BC. After the demise of the Indus Valley Civilisation around 1400 BC, this was the next significant civilization in ancient India.
- The Vedas were written during this time period, thus the name.
Conclusion
Historians know relatively little about the Indus valley people’s religious practices. The Indus valley civilization spanned an area in the Indian subcontinent greater than modern-day Europe during its heyday. The civilisation existed between 3500 and 2000 BC, with predecessors extending back to the Neolithic era between 7000 and 6000 BC.
The Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BCE) marks a foundational period in the history of the Indian subcontinent characterised by the settlement of Indo-Aryans in the northwestern regions, including the Punjab and the Sarasvati River basin. Its significance lies in its foundational influence on Indian culture and religious practices, which continued to evolve throughout the Vedic period.
About Early Vedic Period (EVP)
- The Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BCE) marks when the Indo-Aryans settled in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, primarily in the Punjab and the Sarasvati River basin.
- During this time, society was predominantly pastoral, with cattle rearing a major occupation alongside agriculture.
- The Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedic texts, was composed during this period. It reflects the people’s religious beliefs, social structure, and daily lives.
- The Early Vedic Period was characterised by a simple, clan-based society where the family and the clan (Jana) were central to social organisation.
- Society was governed by tribal chiefs (Rajans), who led their people in both governance and warfare.
- Religious practices centred on worshipping natural forces and deities such as Agni, Indra, and Varuna through elaborate rituals and sacrifices.
Political Structure of Early Vedic Period
The political structure of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period functioned with the tribal chief at the centre due to his successful leadership in war.
- He was called Rajan. The Rajan was not an absolute monarch, as the tribe’s government was partially responsible for tribal councils like sabha, samiti, gana, and vidatha.
- The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti, which were so influential that chiefs or kings sought their support.
- These clan-based assemblies exercised deliberative, military, and religious functions.
- Even women attended the sabha and the vidatha. The raja’s post was generally hereditary, but there are mentions of the election of the king by the tribal assembly (samiti).
Functionaries Assisting Kings of Early Vedic Period
- The most important official was the Purohita, who, through his sacrifices, ensured the tribe’s prosperity in peace and victory in war.
- Two priests who played a major role during the Rig Veda period were Vasishtha and Vishvamitra.
- Vasishtha was conservative, while Vishvamitra was liberal and composed the Gayatri mantra to expand the Aryan world. The priests inspired the tribal chiefs to action and praised their exploits.
- The next important functionary was the Senani (General), responsible under the king for minor campaigns and cattle raids against neighbouring tribes.
- There was no regular or standing army; in times of war, the king mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups like Vrata, Gana, Grama, and Sardha.
- The officer with authority over the pasture ground was called Vrajapati. He led the heads of the families (Kulapas) or the heads of the fighting hordes (Graminis) into battle.
- Initially, the Gramani was the head of a small tribal fighting unit. Still, when the unit settled, the Gramani became the head of the village and later was identified with the Vrajapati.
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Tribal Assembly of Early Vedic Period
The tribal assembly of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
Vidhata
- Vidatha is the most important assembly in the Rig Vedic period. It served multiple purposes, including secular, religious, and military functions.
- Unlike the Sabha, which is only briefly mentioned in connection with women in the Rig Veda, the Vidatha is frequently associated with women’s active participation.
- Women took part in deliberations alongside men. The Vidatha was the earliest folk assembly of the Aryans, encompassing a wide range of economic, military, religious, and social functions.
- It also acted as a common platform for clans and tribes to engage in the worship of their gods.
Sabha
- The term Sabha refers to both the assembly in the early Rig-Vedic period and the assembly hall in later Rig-Vedic times.
- Women, referred to as Sabhasvatis, attended these assemblies in the early period.
- However, their participation ceased in later Vedic times. The Rig Veda describes the Sabha as a place for dicing and gambling and a venue for dancing, music, witchcraft, and magic.
- It played a role in discussing pastoral affairs and performing judicial and administrative functions, thereby exercising judicial authority.
Samiti
- References to Samiti appear in the later books of the Rig Veda, indicating that it gained significance towards the end of the Rig-Vedic period.
- The Samiti was a folk assembly where tribe members convened to handle tribal matters.
- It addressed philosophical issues and was involved in religious ceremonies and prayers. Records suggest that the Rajan was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.
Comparison of Sabha and Samiti
- Initially, there was no distinction between the Sabha and the Samiti; both were referred to as the daughters of Prajapati and functioned as mobile units led by chiefs who travelled with their forces.
- The primary difference was that the Sabha performed judicial functions, a role not attributed to the Samiti.
- Over time, the Sabha evolved into a minor aristocratic body, while the Samiti ceased to exist.
Economy of Early Vedic Period
Nature of Economy
The nature of the economy of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- Mainly Rural – The Vedic economy was mainly rural, with limited food production and insufficient resources to support an urban population.
- Mainly Pastoral Economy – The Rig Veda contains many references to the cow and the bull, indicating that the Rig Vedic Aryans were predominantly pastoral. Terms like shepherds and pastures suggest they were nomads who moved around grazing their animals.
- Agriculture – Agriculture was also a primary occupation for the Aryans. They had better knowledge of agriculture, including sowing, harvesting, and threshing, and were aware of different seasons. Pre-Aryans in the area also knew agriculture, but it was primarily for fodder production.
- Artificial Means of Irrigation – References to canals and wells indicate using artificial means of irrigation.
- Domestication of Animals – The cow was highly valued and referred to as ‘the sum of all good’. The Rig Vedic Aryans considered cows and bullocks their most valuable possessions.
- The cow was a measure of value, termed “Godhana”, or wealth of the cow.
- Cow milk was a principal food, and ghee for sacrifices was made from it.
Major Occupations and Ownership of Land
The major occupations of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- According to some scholars, when the Rig Vedic Aryans first entered India, they had a pastoral economy.
- Cattle rearing, particularly cowkeeping, was their principal occupation. Gradually, they took to agriculture, which became one of their principal occupations.
- Ultimately, agriculture and cattle rearing became two principal occupations of the Rig Vedic Aryans. Food grains like paddy (Breahi) and barley were grown.
Industry
The industry of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- The weaving of cotton and wool was the principal industry of the Rig Vedic Aryans. Both men and women were engaged in this industry.
- The carpenter made chariots, ploughs, wagons, and houses. Carpentry was a lucrative profession.
- The Aryans were technically well-equipped. The blacksmiths made weapons and household implements, and the goldsmiths made ornaments.
- Their bronze smiths were highly skilled, producing tools and weapons much superior to those of the Harappan culture.
- Bronze smiths, carpenters, and chariot-makers are frequently mentioned in the Rig Veda with much respect.
Trade and Commerce
The trade and commerce of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- The Rig Vedic people of the Early Vedic Society traded with members of the same tribe and with other tribes.
- Sometimes, traders made journeys to distant lands for larger profits in trade.
- The cutting of the jungles and the expansion of the Aryan settlement in Eastern India increased trade volume.
- The banks of the Yamuna and the Indus tributaries were dotted with Aryan villages. Trade between them was likely carried along the river route.
- Trade by land route was also carried out.
Transportation and Medium of Trade
The medium of trade of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- The chief means of transport by land were Rathas (chariots) and wagons drawn by horses and oxen, while boats were used for the river route.
- The principal media of trade was the barter system. Cattle were a sort of currency, and values were reckoned in the heads of cattle, but they were not held sacred at this time. Both oxen and cows were slaughtered for food.
- The horse was almost as crucial as the cow. Although there are references to riding, the horse is more frequently described as the major power of the chariot—a light chariot with two spoked wheels drawn by two horses yoked abreast and carrying two warriors.
- Gradually, pieces of gold called “Nishka” were used to exchange.
- Commerce was generally managed by a class of people called Pani, who were probably non-Aryan. The Aryans regarded them as very clever.
Overseas Trade
The overseas trade of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- We do not know whether the Aryans had overseas trade with West Asian countries. The Harappans had extensive trade with West Asia, but it is not certain whether the Aryans were able to continue it.
- As the Aryan civilization in the Rig Vedic Age was less industrial and less urban than that of the Harappans, it may be presumed that the Aryan trade was local.
- Some scholars hold that the Rig Veda refers to a vast trade that can only be external trade.
Social Life of Early Vedic Period
Family Life
The family life of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- The family life of Aryan people was very simple but well organized under the headship of the eldest member of the family.
- The family system was based on the patriarchal form of society.
- Male members ruled the families or kulas. The head of the family or kula was called kulapa (originating from the Sanskrit word ‘Pa’ meaning ‘to protect’).
- He was responsible for looking after the welfare and the life and property of the family.
- As a rule, the family was based on joint responsibility, where women enjoyed a respectable position.
- The head of the family usually led the family prayer, and the women could join and sometimes take a leading part.
Position of Women
The position of women of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- The Rig Vedic families were patrilineal, and the birth of a male child was always desired. A couple without a son was deplored like poverty. Adoption of sons was welcomed. However, when a female child was born, she was not neglected, and her education was not denied.
- Female scholars like Ghosha, Vishwavara, and Apala were known in the Rig Vedic Society Age, and few Vedic hymns were composed by them.
- Women could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands.
- A female child had no right to perform the funeral rites of the father. The wife could participate in religious rites with her husband and was considered queen of the house, overseeing the husband, children, aged father-in-law, and household servants.
- There was no Purdah system.
- Women had the liberty of free participation in festivals.
- Girls were usually married after attaining puberty, but child marriage was not known.
- The marriageable age in the Rig Veda seems to have been 16 to 17. Free choice on the part of both the bride and bridegroom was permitted.
- Marriage of love was not unknown. An undesirable son-in-law had to pay the bride’s price. Both dowry and bride-price were recognized. Girls with physical defects had to be provided with dowries during their marriage.
- Polygamy was practiced, but there are indications of polyandry. However, monogamy was the general rule during the Early Vedic Period.
- Widow remarriage was permitted.
- The custom of marrying the brother’s widow was prevalent.
- Women were not independent in the eyes of Rig Vedic law and had to remain under the protecting care of their male relations.
Social Divisions
The social divisions of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- The Rig Veda shows some consciousness of the physical appearance of people in north-western India around 1500-1000 BC.
- Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryan language speakers were fair, while the indigenous inhabitants (Dasyus) were dark in complexion.
- The factor that contributed most to the creation of social divisions was the conquest of the indigenous inhabitants by the Aryans.
- The Dasa and the Dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and Kshudras.
- The Rig Veda mentions Aryavarna and Dasavarna. The tribal chiefs and the priests acquired a larger share of the booty, and they naturally grew at the cost of their kinsmen, which created social inequalities in the tribe.
Society of Early Vedic Period
Structure of Society
The structure of society of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- During the Rig-Vedic era, the foundation of society was the family; the basic unit of power lay within a patriarchal family (Kula).
- A group of such families formed a grama, which was controlled by a village headman (Gramini).
- The groups of villages belonged to a clan (Vis), and many clans made a community called Jana.
- Vis was probably divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting.
Nature of Society
The nature of society of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- Patriarchal Society – The family was staunchly patrilineal and patriarchal. The wife, though she enjoyed a respectable position, was definitely subordinate to her husband.
- Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, with no reference to divorce. The birth of a son was highly desired, and people prayed to the gods for brave sons to fight in wars.
- Egalitarian Society – The caste-system was not organized during the Rig Vedic Period.
- There were no Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, or Shudras. Anyone could adopt any profession without any association with a well-formed caste.
- Rural Civilization – The people of the Early Rig Vedic Society mainly lived in villages. Houses were built of wood or reed straw and contained several apartments.
- There were fortified places called Puras, where people took shelter during invasions. Pura did not necessarily mean a town or city, as cities and towns were very few in this age.
- Four Stages of Life – During the later part of the Rig Vedic Age, the ideal of Four Ashramas developed. Boys of the higher classes lived as students (Brahmacharins) in teachers’ houses to learn grammar, prosody, poetry, and the Vedas.
- After completing this phase, they became Grihastha (householders), then Vanaprastha (forest hermits), and finally Sannyasins (ascetics).
- Modes of Recreation – Both men and women enjoyed dancing and singing. Horse races and gambling were male pastimes.
- The Aryans loved music, playing the flute and harp, with accompaniment from cymbals and drums, using a heptatonic scale. They also enjoyed chariot races.
- Clothing – The Rig Vedic people wore cotton and woolen garments, and sometimes deer skins.
- Men generally wore one lower and one upper garment called Vasa and Adhivasa. Women, in addition, wore an under garment called “Nivi”.
- Ornaments – Rig Vedic ladies used gold ornaments of various types, sometimes studded with precious stones.
- Women wore long hair, which was combed, oiled, and plaited. The rich had colored and embroidered clothes. Both men and women wore ornaments.
- Food Habits – Daily food included barley, rice, beans, vegetables, milk, milk-products, and cakes.
- They also ate non-vegetarian foods like fish, birds, goats, bulls, horses, etc. They drank intoxicating liquor called Sura and Soma (from plant juice).
- Soma was used in sacrifices and sanctified by religion, while Sura was secular and more potent, disapproved by priestly poets.
- Special sacrifices needed the expert supervision of the Brahmin, but the head of the family usually performed rituals and ceremonies.
- Institution of Marriage – The institution of marriage was established, though symbols of primitive practices survived. There were some indications of polyandry, though rare.
- There were also possibilities of matrilineal traces, with examples of sons named after their mother, like Mamateya.
Religious Life of Early Vedic Period
The religious life of the Early Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
- The early Vedic religion is also known as Henotheism or Kathenotheism—a belief in single gods, each in turn standing out as the highest. It has also been described as the worship of Nature.
- Another important feature was the tendency towards monotheism and even monism.
- Using material objects as symbols of deities was not entirely unknown. Regarding life after death, the Rigvedic hymns have no consistent theory.
- They personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings. The Aryans greatly respected nature, and wherever they found beauty or power in natural manifestations, they would bow their heads and entreat mercy from that object.
- Agni and Indra were invited to partake of sacrifices made by the whole tribe (Jana).
- Offerings of vegetables, barley, etc. were made to gods. They asked mainly for Praja (children), Pashu (cattle), food, wealth, health, etc.
- The Rig Veda, predominantly a religious scripture, provides ample insight into religious beliefs.
- The religion of the time was simple and free of all formalities. The only congregational prayer was Yagya.
Importance of Early Vedic Period
The importance of the Early Vedic Period is:
- The country got its name after a clan called Bharata.
- Spiritually and culturally important: It was during this period that India presented to human culture one of its invaluable contributions – the Vedic Literature.
- Cultural cross linkages: There was an exchange of languages, with common words in different languages such as Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin sharing a lot of common words.
- The society had a strong family system and was egalitarian with less social divisions and inequalities.
- The position of women was respectful, and many women scholars emerged during this period.
Limitations of Early Vedic Period
The limitations of the Early Vedic Period are:
- Differences started growing in this period, which culminated in the poor status of women, substantial caste inequalities, a patriarchal mindset, myriad rituals, idol worship, and the Varna system in the later Vedic period.
- Continuous inter- and intra-tribal wars caused the loss of men and material goods, which could have otherwise led to the development of society.
- The positions of priests strengthened while those of the lower castes deteriorated.
- A hereditary and occupation-based caste and class system with the concept of blood purity was strengthened.
- Instances of slavery were found but were only in a nebulous stage.
Difference between Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period
The difference between the Early Vedic Period and the Later Vedic Period can be seen as follows:
| Aspect | Early Vedic Period | Later Vedic Period |
| Text | Primarily Rigveda | Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Upanishads |
| Society | Pastoral, semi-nomadic, focused on cattle rearing | Settled, agricultural, development of the varna system |
| Political Organization | Tribal structure, chieftains (rajas) | Larger kingdoms, republics (Mahajanapadas), more centralised power |
| Religious Practices | Fire sacrifices (yajnas), worship of natural deities | Elaborate rituals and philosophical concepts (Brahman, Atman) |
| Languages | Vedic Sanskrit (less complex) | Classical Sanskrit (more sophisticated) |
Conclusion
The Early Vedic Period was a pivotal period that shaped ancient India’s cultural and religious landscape. While it was marked by a strong family system, relative social equality, and significant contributions to Vedic literature, it also laid the foundations for later social stratifications and complexities. The period’s legacy includes a profound respect for nature, an evolving religious practice, and early social structures that influenced subsequent historical developments. Understanding the Early Vedic Period provides crucial insights into the origins of many cultural and religious traditions that resonate in India today.
In the Later Vedic Period, the Aryans pushed further east. The Satapatha Brahmana describes Aryan spread to the eastern Gangetic plains. The Aryans fully subjugated the rich plains nourished by the Yamuna, Ganges, and Sadanira rivers during the Later Vedic Age. They migrated through the Vindhyas and settled in the Deccan, north of Godavari.
Later Vedic Age (1000 BC – 600BC)
- In the Later Vedic Period, the Aryans went even further east. The Satapatha Brahmana alludes to the spread of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains.
- Several tribal groupings and kingdoms are referenced in later Vedic literature. The expansion of big kingdoms was a significant development during this time period.
- In the beginning, the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms prospered. Kuru’s prominent rulers were Parikshat and Janamejaya.
- Pravahana Jaivali was a well-liked Panchalas ruler.
- He was a supporter of education. Following the collapse of the Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms such as Kosala, Kasi, and Videha rose to prominence. Kasi’s most notable ruler was Ajatasatru.
- Janaka ruled Videha, which had its capital at Mithila. Yajnavalkya, a scholar, ornamented his court.
- The easternmost tribal kingdoms appear to be Magadha, Anga, and Vanga.
- Later Vedic scriptures also allude to India’s three divisions: Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (middle India), and Dakshinapatha (east India) (southern India).
- During this time, two further collections were composed: the Yajur Veda Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita.
- The hymns in the Yajur Veda are accompanied with rites that represent the society’s sociopolitical framework.
- The Atharva Veda contains charms and spells meant to stave against evil. They mirrored the non-Aryan ideas and customs.
- The Samhitas were followed by the Brahmanas, a collection of literature that discussed the social and religious components of rites.
Iron Culture
- Iron became popular about 1000 BC and was discovered within tombs in Pakistan and Baluchistan.
- From circa 800 BC, iron was utilised to produce weapons such as arrowheads and spearheads in Uttar Pradesh.
- Later Vedic literature employs the names ‘Syama’ or ‘Krishna ayas’ to refer to iron.
- Although agriculture was basic, it was widespread, and rice and wheat became more common in the later Vedic period.
- The introduction of metals resulted in the growth of several arts and crafts.
- Smelters, iron and copper smiths, and carpenters all emerged as occupations.
- In the later Vedic period, there were four varieties of pottery: black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware, and red ware.
Political Organisation
- During the later Vedic era, larger kingdoms arose.
- In the later Vedic period, many jana or tribes merged to form janapadas or rashtras.
- As a result, the royal power grew in tandem with the kingdom’s expansion. To bolster his status, the king undertook several ceremonies and sacrifices.
- Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice), and Vajpeya (chariot race) are among them.
- The rulers were also given titles such as Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi (Lord of the Earth), Ekrat, and Samrat (sole ruler).
- In the later Vedic period, in addition to the existing purohita, senani, and gramani, a great number of additional officials were active in administration.
- The treasury officer, tax collector, and royal messenger are among them. The village assemblies were in charge of governance at the lowest levels.
- During the later Vedic period, the Samiti and Sabha’s influence waned.
Economic Condition
- Iron was widely used during this time period, allowing humans to remove forests and cultivate additional land.
- Agriculture was the primary employment. For farming, improved cultivating equipment was utilised.
- In addition to barley, rice and wheat were farmed. Another benefit was knowledge of manure.
- Industrial activity became more diverse, and specialisation increased. Metalwork, leatherwork, woodwork, and ceramics all advanced significantly.
- Foreign trade expanded in addition to domestic trade.
- The Later Vedic people were seafaring and traded with places like Babylon. A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) emerged.
- Vaisyas was also a trader and merchant. They banded together to form ganas, or guilds.
- Aside from the Rig Vedic nishka, gold and silver coins such as satamana and krishnala were utilised as mediums of commerce.
Social Life
- During the Later Vedic period, the four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras), or the Varna system, were completely established.
- The Brahmin and Kshatriya castes had benefits that the Vaisya and Shudra classes did not.
- A Brahmin had a greater standing than a Kshatriya, yet Kshatriyas often claimed superiority over Brahmins.
- During this time, many sub-castes based on employment emerged.
- During the Later Vedic period, the father’s authority in the family grew. There was no progress in women’s status.
- They were still regarded as inferior and subservient to males.
- Women’s political rights to attend assemblies were likewise revoked. Child marriages were becoming more widespread.
- A daughter, according to the Aitareya Brahmana, is a cause of unhappiness. Women in the royal household, on the other hand, had significant advantages.
Religion
- Early Vedic gods such as Indra and Agni lost their significance.
- During the Later Vedic era, Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector), and Rudra (the destroyer) rose to prominence.
- Sacrifices remained significant, and the rites associated with them grew more intricate.
- Prayers became less important as sacrifices became more important. Priesthood became a profession, and it became hereditary.
- The priestly elite created and elaborated on sacrificial formulas.
- As a result, at the conclusion of this time, there was a significant pushback against priestly rule as well as sacrifices and rites.
- These elaborate sacrifices were directly responsible for the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism.
- Furthermore, the writers of the Upanishads, the heart of Hindu philosophy, rejected needless rituals in favour of pure knowledge (jnana) for serenity and salvation.
Conclusion
The Aryans advanced eastward throughout the Later Vedic Period. According to the Satapatha Brahmana, Aryans moved to the eastern Gangetic plains. The Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished at first. Parikshat and Janamejaya were two important Kuru monarchs. The Aryans fully controlled the rich plains nourished by rivers such as the Yamuna, Ganges, and Sadanira during the Later Vedic Age (1000-600 B.C.).