Government of India Act (1858) was passed on August 2,1858 which transferred the Company’s powers, territories and revenues to the British Crown. This act changed the designation of the “Governor General of India” to “Viceroy of India”. This significant Act was passed in the wake of the 1857 Revolt,It was sometimes referred to as the “Act for the Good Government of India.” It put a stop to Pitt’s India Act’s Dual Government Scheme.

Historical Background

• The 1858 mutiny was crushed, but it sent shockwaves across London. It sent a message that trading firms should not be permitted to remain as a political force.
• Since 1853, many English Traders and settlers had also developed a vested interest in India and their persistent complaint was the company had been neglecting their interests.
• According to British PM Palmerson, the utter irresponsibility and the cumbersome, Complex, irrational nature of the double government were primary defects in the Company’s rule.
• Parliament approved the Government of India Act on August 2, 1858, less than a month after the 1857 revolt, which led to power transfer.
• In India, the rule of the Company was superseded by the rule of the Crown, and the Secretary of State for India was to exercise the British Crown’s powers.

Key Provisions

• It abolished East India Company, India became a direct British Colony. Indian territories were to be governed in the name of the British queen.
• Abolished the dual government initiated by Pitt’s India Act of 1784.Court of Directors and the Board of Control were scrapped.
• The powers of the Court of Directors were shifted to and vested in the Secretary of State for India.(First Secretary of State for India: Lord Stanley)
• Secretary of State was to be assisted by a Council of 15 members .The council had only an advisory role. The Secretary of State for India was made chairman of the Council.
• Secretary of State would also act as a channel of communication between the British government and Indian Administration.
• Secretary of State would have complete authority and control over the Indian Administration. He was also vested with the power to send secret dispatches to India without consulting his council.
• British Parliament could question the Secretary of State in the Parliament regarding the state of affairs in India.
• The act put an end to the doctrine of lapse
• Governor General was given the title of Viceroy,who became a direct representative of Crown.( First Viceroy of India was Lord Canning )
• All power was vested in the hands of Viceroy.Viceroys were to be assisted by an Executive Council.
• Viceroy and the Governors of the various presidencies were appointed by the Crown.
• The act put an end to the doctrine of lapse. It was also decided that the remaining Indian Princes would have their independent status provided they accept British suzerainty.
• Pardon would be granted to all the Indians who participated in the mutiny except those who had killed British subjects.
• Provision for Indian Civil Services to administer the country,which would be controlled by Secretary of states.

Secretary Of State According To The Government Of India Act, 1858

• The Secretary of State was to be a British MP and a member of the Prime Minister’s cabinet.
• As a member of cabinet,was ultimately responsible to the British Parliament.

Defects

• It was dominated by absolute Imperial control with no representation for the people of India.
• The Secretary of State was the supreme authority and had a free hand in the administration of India and was responsible only to the British parliament.

Conclusion

Government of India Act, 1858 is also known as the act of good governance.But,it did not in any way alter the system of government in India. Most of the provisions were enacted to safeguard the jewel of British empire against any future threats or rebellions.

Indian Councils Act (1861) was passed by the British Parliament on August 1, 1861. It transformed the Executive Council to function as a cabinet run on the portfolio system. The involvement of Indians in the legislative process was the most notable feature of this Act. The Indian Councils Act of 1861 is an important landmark in the constitutional and political history of India.

Historical Background

• After the great revolt of 1857, the British Empire felt the urgent need of seeking the cooperation of its Indian subjects in the administration of India.
• In pursuit of this policy of association, three acts were enacted in 1861, 1892, and 1909.

Reasons for Enactment

• The Government of India Act of 1858 made important changes in the manner of governance from England, but it made no significant changes to the Indian government system.
• Following the 1857 Mutiny, there was a widespread belief in England that establishing a government in India without the participation of Indians in the administration would be extremely impossible.
• The 1833 Charter Act centralized the legislative process. It had only one representative in each of the four provinces, and it failed to pass legislation that was tailored to the needs of the people.
• The Governor General in Council was failing in his legislative duties and was unable to perform effectively due to lengthy procedures that caused delays in enactment.

Provisions

• The trend of decentralisation was initiated by this act, which restored the legislative powers of the Bombay and Madras presidencies.
• Thus, the centralising trends that began with the Regulating Act of 1773 and culminated with the Charter Act of 1833 were reversed.
• This policy of legislative devolution resulted in the grant of almost complete internal autonomy to the provinces in 1937.
• By associating Indians with the law-making process, a new beginning was made for representative institutions.
• Providing for the provision of the Viceroy nominating some Indian members to his extended council.
• Subsequently, three Indians were included in this 1862 Legislative Council – the Raja of Benaras, the Maharaja of Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao.
• Any bill relating to public revenue or debt, the military, religion, or foreign affairs could not be passed without the Governor-General’s approval.
• If necessary, the Viceroy had the authority to overrule the council.
• During emergencies, the Governor-General also had the authority to issue ordinances without the approval of the council.
• It provided for the establishment of the legislative councils for Bengal, North-Western Frontier Province and Punjab.
• It empowered the Viceroy to make rules and orders for a better and more convenient transaction of business in the council.
• It recognized the Portfolio System (introduced by Lord Canning in 1859) under which, a member of the Viceroy’s Council was made in-charge of one or more departments of the Government and was authorised to issue final orders on behalf of the Council on the matters of the concerned department.
• It also empowered Viceroy to issue ordinances, without the consent of the Legislative Council during an emergency. The ordinance will be valid for a period of 6 months.

Significance

• The Indian Councils Act of 1861 is a watershed moment in India’s constitutional and political history.
• For executive and legislative purposes, it changed the structure of the Governor General’s council.
• By involving Indians in the legislative process, a fresh beginning for representative institutions was established.

Defects

• The Legislative Council had a limited role. It was mainly advisory. No financial decisions were allowed.
• Although the Indians were elected, there were no official conditions for the inclusion of Indians in them.
• It allowed for the allocation of administrative positions by delegating legislative powers to the presidents of Bombay and Madras.
• The Governor-General had absolute power.

Conclusion

The Indian Councils Act 1861 is an important landmark in the constitutional and political history of India. It altered the composition of the Governor General’s Council for executive and legislative purposes. However, from India’s point of view, the act did little to improve the influence of Indians in the Legislative Council. The role of Council was limited to advice, and no financial discussion could take place.

Indian Councils Act of 1892 was passed with the objective of increasing the size of legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India. Following the foundation of the Indian National Congress, the Indian Councils Act of 1892 represents a significant milestone in India’s constitutional and political history.

Historical Background

• Following the Great Revolt of 1857, British realised that it needed to ensure the help of its Indian subjects in administering India.
• In addition, as nationalism grew in popularity, Indians became more cognizant of their rights.
• Following the founding of the Indian National Congress, the Indian Councils Act of 1892 represents a significant milestone in India’s constitutional and political history.
• After the Act of 1861, the growth of the Indian Constitution is essentially a story of political discontent and agitation interspersed with Council Reforms.
• The reforms that were reluctantly accepted were always found to be insufficient, resulting in dissatisfaction and a demand for more reforms.
• During the 1885-1889,as a result of the growing nationalism, the Indiana National Congress raised several demands through its sessions.

The following were the main demands:

• An ICS test was to be held simultaneously in England and India.
• Expansion of the Legislative Councils, including the adoption of the election-in-place-of-nomination basis.
• Opposition to Upper Burma’s annexation.
• Military spending should be reduced
• Ability to have previously forbidden financial chats.

Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy at the time, convened a commission to investigate the situation. On the other side, the Secretary of State opposed the idea of a direct election. However, he agreed to indirect electoral representation.

Objective

Increase in the size of various legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India.

Key Provisions

• It raised the number of (non-official) members in the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils while keeping the official majority.
  • Bombay – 8
  • Madras – 20
  • Bengal – 20
  • North Western Province -15
  • Oudh – 15
  • Central Legislative Council minimum – 10, maximum 16
• The Act made it clear that the members appointed to the council were not there as representatives of any Indian body, but as nominees of the Governor-General.
• Members could now debate the budget without voting right. They were also barred from asking follow-up questions.
• The elected members were permitted to discuss official and internal matters.
• The Governor General in Council was given the authority to set rules for member nomination, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State for India.
• To elect members of the councils, an indirect election system was implemented.
• Members of provincial councils could be recommended by universities, district boards, municipalities, zamindars, and chambers of commerce.
• Provincial legislative councils were given more powers, including the ability to propose new laws or repeal old ones with the Governor General’s assent.

Significance

• It was the first step toward a representative system of government in contemporary India.
• The number of Indians increased, which was a good thing.
• Despite the fact that Indians did not have the power to veto the majority, their opinions were heard.
• The principle of election, which was accepted in 1892, allowed non-officials to have a free and open discussion on the government’s financial strategy. As a result, the administration had an opportunity to clear up misconceptions and respond to criticism.
• The statute gave members of the council the authority to issue interpellations on subjects of public concern.

Defects

• Despite being the first step toward a representative government in modern India, this act provided no benefits to the common man.
• This act created the stage for the development of numerous revolutionary forces in India because the British only made a minor concession.
• Many leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, faulted Congress’s moderate strategy of petitions and persuasions for the lack of significant progress and called for a more assertive policy against British rule.

Conclusion

The Indian Councils Act, 1892 is a significant milestone in India’s constitutional and political history. The act increased the size of various legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India. The Indian Councils Act, 1892 was the first step towards the representative government in modern India. The act created the stage for the development of revolutionary forces in India because the British only made a minor concession.

In 1880 A.D. election took place in England in which Liberal party came to power and its Leader Gladstone became the Prime Minister of England.

When Gladstone came to power, Viceroy Lord Lytton, resigned. Gladstone sent Lord Ripon as viceroy of India in 1880. Ripon was industrious, able with a deep moral earnestness.

He may be described as Gladstone’s agent in India. Ripon was liberal in his attitude and made some remarkable changes in the administrative system of India.

He granted various facilities to the Indians. P.E. Roberts writes about Lord Ripon, “He was a true liberal of Gladstonian Era with a strong belief in the virtues of peace, laissez faire, and self government.” Ripon was a true Democrat. He took some steps towards liberalizing the administration in India. His aim was to give popular and political education to the Indians. He formulated the local self government and laid the foundations of representative institutions in India.

Reforms

Repeal of Vernacular Press Act, 1882:

Lord Ripon repealed the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 passed by Lord Lytton by Act III of 1882 and thus news papers published in vernacular languages were allowed equal freedom with the rest of the Indian Press. This action of Ripon went a long way in conciliating public opinion.

The First Factory Act, 1881:

To improve the lot of the factory workers in towns, he passed the first Factory Act in 1881. The Act prohibited the employment of children under the age of seven, limited the number of working hours for children below the age of twelve and required that dangerous machinery should be fenced properly.

The Act also made provision for one hour rest during the working period and four days leave in a month for the workers. Inspectors were appointed to supervise the implementation of these measures. Thus for the first time he British Government tried to improve the working conditions of labourers in factories.

Economic Reforms: Financial Decentralization, 1882:

Lord Ripon like his predecesser, Lord Mayo was the follower of the policy of financial decentralization. Ripon divided the sources of revenue into three categories, Viz. Imperial, Provincial and Divided.

1. Imperial Heads:

Revenue from Customs, Posts and Telegraphs, Railways, Opium, Salt, Mint, Military Receipts, Land Revenue etc. were included in the imperial head. The Central Government was required to meet the expenses of central administration out of this revenue.

2. Provincial Heads:

Revenue from Jails, Medical slices, Printing, Roads, General Administration, etc. were included in the provincial heads. As the income from provincial heads was insufficient for provincial expenses, a part of Land revenue was assigned to the provinces.

3. Divided Heads:

The revenue from Excise, Stamps, Forests, Registration etc. was divided in equal proportion among the Central and Provincial Governments. The system of Divided Heads started by Ripon remained operative till it was modified by the Reforms of 1919.

Local Self Government

Lord Ripon is still remembered by the Indians for his attempts to establish local self government. Lord Ripon believed that the aim of Local Self Government was to train the Indians to manage their own affairs themselves.

Lord Ripon wrote, “What I want is a gradual training of the best, most intelligent and influential men in the community, to take an interest and active part in the management of their local affairs.” Ripon made it clear that he was advocating for the decentralization of administration not with a view of improving administration but as an instrument of political and popular education.

The idea of local self government was not a new one. Municipalities had already existed in big towns but the Government nominated the municipal commissioner. In rural areas there were committees to, manage local affairs such as sanitation, the repair and construction of roads, maintenance of ferries, education etc.

However the local committees were all under official control. Moreover the area served by their committees was too large. So that their members were not sufficiently acquitted with the needs of the people of different localities. Lord Ripon sought to remove these obstacles in the sphere of Local Self government by his resolution of 1882.

Accordingly, in rural areas District Boards and Local Boards known as “tahsil or “taluk boards were established. The members were to be elected by rent-payers rather than nominated by the Government. In towns the powers and responsibilities of the Municipalities were enlarged. The members were to be partly elected and partly nominated.

The chairman was to be a non-official member. The nominated members should not be more than one third of the total strength. The management of health, education, roads and communications were to remain under the control of the local boards. The local bodies were given certain financial powers but the Government retained the powers of inspection.

The local bodies were kept free from government control. But if the Boards were not discharging their duties properly, then the Government had the right to dissolve them. But usually, the government did not interfere in the affairs of the local bodies. The Local Self Government Acts were passed in different provinces during 1883-85. The work of lighting, cleaning of streets, sanitation, education, water supply, medical aid etc. was assigned to the local bodies of Madras, Punjab and Bengal.

Educational Reforms

Lord Ripon appointed an Education Commission in 1882 under the chairmanship of Sir William Hunter to review the progress of education in India, since Wood’s dispatch of 1854. The commission laid emphasis on the special responsibility of the state for the improvement and expansion of primary education.

It recommended that the management of elementary schools was to be entrusted to the newly established local and municipal boards under the supervision and control of the Government.

The Commission was satisfied with the system of Grants-in-aid, urged its extension for secondary and higher education and also recommended that the Government should withdraw as early as possible from the direct management of secondary schools. It also made suggestion for the improvement in commercial and vocational education. The commission also made suggestions for the spread of female education. Lord Ripon accepted most of the recommendations of the commission.

Other Reforms

During that time the recruitment to Indian Civil Service examination was held in England only and the age limit was 18. Ripon urged for the simultaneous examination both in India and in England He failed in his objective because he could not motivate the Government. However he succeeded in enhancing the age limit from 18 to 21.

The Ilbert Bill Controversy, 1883-84

Lord Ripon was a Liberal and he did not believe in castecism. So he sought to abolish “Judicial disqualifications based on race distinction.” According to the criminal procedure code of 1873 no magistrate or sessions judge except in presidency towns could try an European British subject unless he himself was of European birth.

Hence Lord Ripon sought the help of Sir C.P. Ilbert, the law member of the viceroy’s council to abolish the “judicial disqualification based on race distinction”. Sir Ilbert introduced a bill popularly known as the Ilbert Bill on 2nd February 1883 and through this bill the British European subjects were brought under the jurisdiction of Indian magistrates and judges.

But the bill was vehemently opposed by the European Community in India who formed a Defence Association to defence their special privileges. They passed resolutions urging the British Government to recall him before the expiration of the period of his office. After a prolonged tug of war Ripon bowed before the storm of agitation and modified the bill.

The amended bill provided that every European subject brought before a District Magistrate or Session Judge whether an Indian or European could claim to be tried by a Jury of twelve, at least seven of whom were to be Europeans or Americans. Though the Ilbert Bill controversy widened the racial feeling between the Indian and the Europeans yet it helped the Indians to learn the lesson that a powerful Government could be deviated from its purpose by organized agitation. It also intensified the feeling of unity among the Indian people.

Ripon resigned from his post in 1884 before the term of his viceroyalty was over. He was very popular with the Indians. According to Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya, “Ripon was the greatest and the most beloved Viceroy whom India has known.” Ripon is remembered according to Surendra Nath Banarjee for, “the Purity of his intentions, the loftiness of his ideas, righteousness of his policy and his hatred of Racial disqualifications.”

At the time of his departure for England the priests blessed him and offered him gifts. He was the only person who realized that the people of India should themselves make effort to attain freedom. Report’s doings in India marked the beginning of the political’ life in India. His departure was followed by the establishment of Indian National Congress in 1885.

Policy of Paramountcy means supremacy of British authority over Indian affairs.The policy emphasises Governor General’s right to intervene in the internal affairs of the Indian princely states, and to annex them if required. Lord Warren Hastings instituted the policy of Paramountcy who was Governor-General of India between 1813 to 1823. 

The policy of Paramountcy: Concept

• A new policy of “paramountcy” was instituted under Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823).
• The company maintained that because its power was preeminent or superior, it could annex or threaten to annex any Indian state.
• This was considered as the reference groundwork for other later British policies.
• The East India Company maintained that its powers were stronger than those of Indian states and that its powers were supreme or paramount, according to the Policy of Paramountcy.
• Because of Russian invasion fears, the British shifted control in the northwest during these decades.
• Between 1838 and 1842, the British fought a long war with Afghanistan, establishing an indirect company administration in the country.
• Sindh was conquered, Punjab was annexed after two prolonged wars in 1849 ruled by Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

British Paramountcy: Evolution

The evolution of British paramountcy occurred through various means such as the policy of ring-fencing, subordinate isolation, and subordinate union. The British developed the concept of paramountcy through a variety of tactics, including direct annexation via wars and a subsidiary alliance structure via treaties. Over the course of two centuries, the British aristocracy has gone through three distinct stages:

First Phase

• Between 1757 and 1813, the policy of ‘Ring Fence’ or non-interference was implemented.
• During this time, they did their best to stay within the confines of a ring-fence. In other words, they attempted to strengthen their position in a specific region by refraining from interfering in other people’s concerns.
• They pursued this policy mostly due to the facts on the ground. Despite being one of India’s most formidable forces at the time, the British were not yet powerful enough to take on all or even part of the Indian powers at the same time.
• During this initial phase, however, the English began to emerge as the dominant power in India.

Second Phase

• The policy of subordinate isolation was implemented during the second 45-year period (1813-1858).
• During this time, they ascended to the position of supreme power, claiming dominance over all native states. They did not, however, claim Princely India as part of their Indian dominion.
• Furthermore, as the need for British Imperialism grew, there was a steady move from subordinate collaboration to annexation policy during this time. The policy of subordinate cooperation gave way to the policy of annexation during this 21-year period (1834-58).
• This approach, initially announced by the Court of Directors in 1834 and again repeated by them in 1841, was followed by all Governor Generals from William Bentinck to Dalhousie.
• Despite the fact that there were multiple precedents prior to Dalhousie, he pursued annexation with vigour and zeal, even establishing ideas such as the doctrine of lapse and maxim of the benefit of the governed (Maladministration of government).
• He seized Punjab through war during his eight-year reign. He also conquered ten states, starting with Satara and ending with Nagpur, using the doctrine of lapse.
• He used the excuse of maladministration or misgovernance in the case of Awadh, which was the British’s last annexation in India.

Third Phase

• Following the insurrection of 1857, the British began the policy of sub-ordinate unity, which lasted until 1947.
• Following the 1857 insurrection, the British decided to abandon their annexation policy in favour of protecting the original states.
• During the revolt, the vast majority of native rulers remained loyal to the British and even assisted them in defeating the revolt.
• As a result of the revolt, the British learned an essential lesson: keeping the original state would be far more beneficial to them than annexing these states.
• The British will now justify their new approach by claiming that they now have an empire in India that includes not only British India but also princely India.
• As a result , annexing something that already belongs to them is pointless. The fact that there was no more useful land to be annexed in India was also a major factor in the refusal to add any more territory.
• The Queen’s proclamation of 1858 outlined this new policy of subordinate unity, which was fully adopted by the Government of India Act, 1858.
• The local rulers were now offered eternal life in writing in exchange for their loyalty and effectiveness. Due to the failure of naturally born male successors, 160 of the 562 native monarchs of the period were given special permission to go for adoption.
• Furthermore, the English showed their hesitation to conquer any native state in the notable examples of Baroda (1874) and Manipur (1881).
• However, they intervened in both situations to demonstrate that they would not tolerate either disloyalty or inefficiency.

The policy of Paramountcy: Resistance of States

• The minor state of Kitoor, which is now part of Karnataka, disputed this approach.
• Rani Channamma spearheaded the resistance movement against the British.
• Rani Channamma was apprehended in 1824 and died in 1829 while being imprisoned.
• Chennamma was born in Kakati, Karnataka’s Belagavi district.
• When she married Raja Mallasarja of the Desai family, she became the queen of Kitturu (now Karnataka). They had a son who died in 1824. She adopted another child, Shivalingappa, after her son died and proclaimed him heir to the crown. The British East India Company, however, refused to accept this because of the Doctrine of Lapse, an annexation doctrine created by the British East India Company.
• Rayanna, a poor chowkidar from Sangoli in Kitoor, led the resistance.
• In 1830, the British apprehended him and executed him.
• Rayanna, a poor chowkidar from Sangoli in Kitoor, led the resistance,in 1830, the British apprehended him and executed him.

Policy of paramountcy – British Expansion

Conclusion

The system of paramountcy was just a system of limited sovereignty on the surface. In reality, it was a means for the Imperial State to recruit a solid base of support. The Imperial State’s support removed the need for rulers to seek legitimacy through patronage or discussion with their people. The colonial state turned India’s populace into subjects rather than citizens, both directly and indirectly through the princes.

• The three Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839-1919) saw Great Britain, operating out of its base in India, wanting to control the neighboring Afghanistan to oppose Russian influence there. The first war was of great significance historically for Afghanistan and the British.
• The Anglo-Afghan wars were a direct result of the Great game between Great Britain and Russia which began in 1830.
• The British were concerned about Russian advances in Central Asia. England used Afghanistan as a buffer state to protect all approaches to British India from a Russian invasion.
• British concern about the Russian influence on Afghanistan led to the First Anglo-Afghan War (from 1838 to 1842) and the Second Anglo-Afghan War (from 1878 to 1880). The Third Anglo-Afghan War began in May 1919 and lasted for a month.
• Great Britain no longer had control of Afghanistan’s foreign affairs after an armistice was signed on August 8, 1919.

A brief history of Afghanistan

• Afghanistan was an important crossroads, dominated by other civilizations throughout its history.
• The Gandhara kingdom (1500-530 BCE) was centered around the Peshawar valley and Swat River valley, and westwards towards Kabul.
• By 522 BCE Darius, the Great extended the boundaries of the Persian Empire into most of the region that is now Afghanistan.
• By 330 BCE Alexander, the Great conquered Persia and Afghanistan. Seleucus, a Macedonian officer during Alexander’s campaign, declared himself ruler of his own Seleucid Empire, which also included present-day Afghanistan.
• The region became was attacked by the Mauryan empire during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign. Seleucus and Chandragupta signed a peace treaty thus stopping the Mauryans at the Hindukush.
• The Ghaznavid and Ghurid dynasties ruled the region from 997 to the Mongol invasions in 1221. Later Timur incorporated the areas into the Timurid empire with the city of Herat as the capital.
• Babur also used Kabul as military headquarters from 1504, from where he launched into the Indian subcontinent.
• After centuries of invasions the nation finally began to take shape during the 18th century under the leadership of Ahmad Shah Durrani.
• By 1736 Persian ruler Nader Shah gained control of most of the region that is present-day Afghanistan. He was assassinated in 1747.
• After his death, Ahmad Shah Durrani was chosen to be the ruler of Afghanistan. Durrani extended Afghanistan’s borders into India during the 1760s.

First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-43)

• The British and Russian empires competed diplomatically for areas of influence in South Asia throughout the 19th century.
• The Afghans were in constant conflict with the Sikh kingdom which had conquered Peshawar. The unstable condition in the Afghan and Sindh regions along with the increasing power of the Sikh kingdom made the British fear attacks from the northwest frontier.
• Meanwhile, Dost Muhammad, the amir of Durrani empire was in talks with Russians to contain the Sikhs.
• The British East India Company sent envoys to Kabul for an alliance against Russia. Kabul demanded the restoration of Peshawar captured by the Sikh kingdom. The British were unsure of their power to deal with the Sikhs and hence refused Kabul’s demand.
• 1838: Great Britain, concerned about growing Persian and Russian influences, invaded Afghanistan. The invasion was ordered by Lord Auckland who was governor general at that time. He was in support of restoring the exiled Afghan ruler Shah Shoja to the throne of Kabul.
• 1839: The British in a surprise attack captured the fortress of Ghazni. The British effortlessly marched into Kabul and restored Shah Shoja to the throne of Kabul.
• The Afghans could not tolerate a foreign occupation or a king imposed on them by a foreign power, hence uprisings broke out.
• After fleeing to Balkh and then Bukhara, where he was captured, Dost Mohammad managed to escape from jail and returned to Afghanistan to join his partisans in fighting the British.
• 1840: Dost Muhammad had the upper hand in a fight at Parwan in 1840, but the next day he submitted to the British in Kabul. He and the majority of his family were sent back to India.
• 1842: The uprisings continued and the British found to hard to contain the Afghans, hence they decided to retreat. The whole English camp marched out of Kabul but was swarmed by bands of Afghans, and the retreat ended in a bloodbath. Shoja was also killed in Kabul as he was unpopular among the Afghans.
• 1843: The new governor-general of India, Lord Ellenborough, decided on the evacuation of Afghanistan, and in 1843 Dost Moḥammad returned to Kabul and was restored to the throne.
• The British were earlier aiming to attack Punjab as well but were countered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. But his death in 1839 caused the Sikh kingdom to fall apart. Thus, the end of the First Anglo-Afghan war gave way to a series of Anglo-Sikh wars (1845-49).
• 1855: A treaty of friendship (Treaty of Peshawar) was signed between British India and Dost Mohammed of Kabul. The treaty was a ‘policy of non-interference’.
• Dost Mohammed stayed loyal to the treaty and refused to help the rebels during the ‘Revolt of 1857’.
• 1856: After the Crimean War, Russia turned its attention towards Central Asia yet again.
• After 1864, the British started strengthening Afghanistan as a powerful buffer state. They helped the Amir of Kabul is disciplining the internal rivals. The non-interference and occasional help stopped Afghanistan from aligning with Russia.
• This policy of the British in Afghanistan is called the “policy of masterly inactivity”.

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-80)

• The policy of non-interference did not last long. The 1870s saw a resurgence of imperialism and the Anglo-Russian rivalry intensified. Their commercial and financial interest in Central Asia clashed openly in the Balkans and West Asia.
• Lord Lytton was named governor-general of India by British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli in 1875. Lytton was given orders to either combat the rising Russian influence in Afghanistan at the time of his appointment or use force to establish a secure border.
• Sometime after Lytton’s arrival in India, he informed Sher Ali Khan, Dost Mohammad’s third son and the heir apparent that he was dispatching a “mission” to Kabul. Lytton’s request to enter Afghanistan was denied by the emir.
• Lytton did not begin attacking the kingdom until 1878, when Afghan forces turned back Lytton’s envoy, Sir Neville Chamberlain, at the frontier while General Stolyetov of Russia was allowed entry into Kabul.
• 1878: The British attacked Afghanistan. Sher Ali fled his capital and country and died in exile early in 1879. The British occupied Kabul.
• Sher Ali’s son, Yakub Khan signed the ‘Treaty of Gandamak’ for peace in 1879 and he was recognized as the amir.

• • He subsequently agreed to receive a permanent British embassy in Kabul.
  • In addition, he agreed to conduct his foreign relations with other states in accordance with the advice of the British government.
• 1879: The Afghan rebels rose against foreign interference and the British envoy, Sir Louis Cavagnari, and his escort were murdered in Kabul.
• British again occupied Kabul in retaliation while Yakub Khan abdicated the throne.
• 1880: Lord Ripon replaces Lytton as the governor-general and went back to the policy of non-interference.
• Meanwhile, Abdur Rahman, nephew of Sher Ali and cousin of Yakub Khan was recognized as the new Amir. He agreed to maintain relations only with the British and no other foreign powers.
• British got full control of Afghanistan’s foreign affairs and the Amir became a dependent ruler.
• 1893: The Durand line was drawn as the boundaries of modern Afghanistan by the British and the Russians. The line is named after the British civil servant Sir Henry Mortimer Durand who marked the line.
• Durand Line cut through Pashtun villages and has been the cause of continuing conflict between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Battle of Saragarhi (1897)

The Battle of Saragarhi was fought on 12 September 1897, in the then North-West Frontier Province of British India, (now in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan).

• The conflict was concentrated on the Saragarhi garrison which was a communication post between Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan.
• The post was defended by 21 Sikh soldiers of the 36th Sikhs regiment of the British Indian Army against soldiers of Pashtun, and Orakzai tribes, more than 8 to 10 thousand in numbers.

The Battle of Saragarhi is considered one of the finest last stands in the military history of the world.

Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)

• The outbreak of World War I (1914-18) and the Russian Revolution (1917) gave rise to strong anti-British sentiments and support for Ottoman turkey in most Islamic regions including Afghanistan.
• The removal of Russian influence and anti-British sentiments made the new ruler of Afghanistan Amanullah Khan declared total independence from Britain.
• This declaration launched the inconclusive Third Anglo-Afghan War in May 1919.
• Fighting was confined to a series of skirmishes between an ineffective Afghan army and a British Indian army exhausted from the heavy demands of World War I.
• A peace treaty, ‘The Treaty of Rawalpindi’ was signed in recognition of the independence of Afghanistan.

• • British saw a strategic victory as the Durand line was reaffirmed as border between Afghanistan and British Raj.
  • Afghanistan saw a diplomatic victory with full independence and sovereignty in foreign affairs.
• The final amended treaty was signed in 1921 before which the Afghans concluded a treaty of friendship with the new Bolshevik regime in the Soviet Union.
• Afghanistan thereby became one of the first states to recognize the Soviet government, and a “special relationship” evolved between the two governments that lasted until December 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan during the Afghan War.

Impact of Anglo-Afghan Wars

• The Anglo-Afghan wars resulted in a botched boundary between Afghanistan and present-day Pakistan which is causing major trouble in the region even today.
• In Afghanistan, to this very day, no foreigners are viewed with as much suspicion as the British, but the shadows of the wars still remain.

The relationship between Burma (now Myanmar) and British India in the 19th century is a compelling narrative of conflict, diplomacy, and colonial ambition. This relationship evolved from cautious trade interactions into open hostility, culminating in Burma’s annexation by the British Empire in 1886. The annexation marked the end of Burma’s sovereignty under the Konbaung Dynasty and its incorporation into British India, reshaping its political, social, and economic landscape. 

Early Interactions and Escalating Tensions

The initial encounters between the British and Burma were driven by mutual commercial interests. British merchants and the East India Company sought to expand their influence in Asia, identifying Burma as a land rich in natural resources, including teak, rubies, and fertile agricultural land. Burma’s strategic position, flanked by India and China, made it an attractive territory for British interests. Meanwhile, the Burmese Konbaung kings were engaged in their own imperial pursuits, seeking to consolidate power by expanding into Assam, Manipur, and Arakan, regions that brought them into direct conflict with British India.

The first major strain in relations emerged during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, as the Burmese monarchy’s territorial ambitions alarmed the British. Burma’s expansion into territories that bordered Bengal, combined with its increasing support for insurgencies in northeastern India, provoked British suspicion and hostility. By the 1820s, these tensions escalated into the First Anglo-Burmese War, marking the beginning of a series of conflicts that would determine Burma’s fate.

The First Anglo-Burmese War and Its Consequences

The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826) was a direct result of the clash between Burma’s imperial ambitions and Britain’s need to secure its Indian frontiers. The war, the longest and most expensive conflict fought by the East India Company, was a defining moment in the relationship between the two powers. It was triggered by Burmese incursions into British-controlled Assam and Manipur, as well as disputes over territorial boundaries. The British, perceiving these actions as a threat to their security and trade, launched a military campaign against Burma.

The war was characterized by fierce battles, logistical challenges, and heavy casualties on both sides. The British, however, gained the upper hand due to their superior naval power and ability to control key waterways. By 1826, the British forced the Burmese to sue for peace, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Yandabo. This treaty marked a significant turning point, as Burma ceded the provinces of Arakan and Tenasserim, paid a hefty indemnity, and agreed to allow British diplomatic representation in Ava, the Burmese capital. Though the treaty ended the war, it planted seeds of resentment in Burma, as the loss of territory and national pride deeply affected the Konbaung rulers.

Renewed Conflict: The Second Anglo-Burmese War

The uneasy peace established by the Treaty of Yandabo did not last long. By the mid-19th century, tensions resurfaced, driven by disputes over trade and diplomatic protocols. The British were keen to expand their influence in Lower Burma, particularly in Rangoon, an emerging commercial hub. The Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852–1853) was precipitated by a trade dispute in Rangoon, where British merchants complained of harassment and extortion by Burmese officials. When the Burmese monarchy refused to address these grievances to Britain’s satisfaction, the British launched another military campaign.

Unlike the first war, the Second Anglo-Burmese War was swift and decisive. British forces quickly captured Rangoon and advanced into Pegu, effectively taking control of Lower Burma. The war ended without a formal treaty, but the British unilaterally annexed Lower Burma, incorporating it into British India. This annexation was significant, as it provided the British with control over Burma’s rice-exporting regions and deepened their economic stake in the country. For the Burmese monarchy, the loss of Lower Burma was a devastating blow, further weakening the Konbaung Dynasty and setting the stage for future conflict.

The Third Anglo-Burmese War and the Fall of the Konbaung Dynasty

By the late 19th century, Burma’s weakened monarchy faced mounting internal challenges and external pressures. The reign of King Thibaw Min, the last monarch of the Konbaung Dynasty, was marked by mismanagement and corruption, as well as an increasingly hostile relationship with the British. Thibaw’s attempts to forge alliances with France, a rising colonial power in Southeast Asia, alarmed the British, who viewed French influence in Burma as a direct threat to their interests.

The Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) was the culmination of these tensions. The British, citing Thibaw’s monopolization of the teak and timber trade and alleged mistreatment of British merchants, launched a military campaign to overthrow the Burmese monarchy. The war was remarkably short, as British forces quickly advanced up the Irrawaddy River, capturing Mandalay, the royal capital, in November 1885. King Thibaw was captured and exiled to India, and the British declared Burma annexed.

The formal annexation of Burma occurred in January 1886, when Upper Burma was incorporated into the British Empire. With this act, Burma ceased to exist as an independent kingdom, becoming a province of British India. The annexation marked the end of centuries of Burmese sovereignty and the start of nearly six decades of colonial rule.

The Impact of British Annexation

The annexation of Burma had far-reaching consequences for its political, economic, and social structures. Politically, the abolition of the monarchy and traditional administrative systems disrupted Burmese governance. The British introduced a centralized colonial administration based on the Indian model, with British officials overseeing governance and the Indian Penal Code replacing Burmese legal traditions. This imposition of foreign systems alienated many Burmese, particularly the traditional elite.

Economically, the British focused on exploiting Burma’s natural resources for export. The rice industry became the cornerstone of Burma’s colonial economy, with vast tracts of agricultural land converted to rice cultivation. However, much of this land was controlled by Indian immigrants or British firms, marginalizing Burmese farmers. The export-driven economy enriched the British Empire but did little to improve the lives of ordinary Burmese, many of whom faced dispossession and poverty.

Culturally and socially, the annexation undermined Burma’s traditional institutions. The monarchy, which had been a unifying symbol of Burmese identity, was abolished, and the Buddhist clergy (Sangha) was increasingly marginalized under British rule. The British also encouraged Christian missionary activity, particularly among ethnic minorities such as the Karen and Chin, further fracturing Burmese society.

Resistance to British rule was widespread, with many Burmese taking up arms in guerrilla warfare. These resistance movements, though ultimately suppressed, reflected the deep dissatisfaction with colonial rule and the longing for independence. The seeds of Burma’s nationalist movement, which would gain momentum in the 20th century, were sown during this period.

Conclusion

The annexation of Burma in 1886 was the culmination of decades of conflict and colonial ambition. The British, driven by strategic and economic interests, systematically dismantled Burma’s sovereignty through a series of wars and treaties. While the annexation brought Burma into the global economy and introduced modern infrastructure, it also disrupted traditional society, eroded national identity, and created lasting grievances. The legacy of British rule in Burma is a complex one, marked by both development and destruction. The events of 1886 remain a pivotal chapter in Burma’s history, shaping its path toward independence and its struggles with identity and governance in the modern era.

Relations with Bhutan

• At the beginning of the Company’s rule, the relationship between India and Bhutan was hostile. There were frequent attacks by the Bhutanese in the Duars plains of British territory.
• Warren Hastings signed an Anglo-Bhutanese Treaty on April 25, 1774, to end the hostilities and establish friendly relations with Bhutan. This treaty permitted EIC to trade with Tibet through Bhutan’s territory.
• The Treaty of Yandabo (1826) handed over Assam to the British, bringing them into close contact with Bhutan.
• The Bhutanese took advantage of political instability in Northeast India after the Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26). They committed various acts of aggression, leading to encroachments and adding to their possessions of the Dooars. This led to an estranged relationship between the British India and Bhutan.
• The intermittent raids by the Bhutiyas on the Bengal side of the border further strained relations between India and Bhutan.

The EIC’s engagement with Bhutan started in 1772 after the Bhutanese invaded Cooch Behar (a city in West Bengal), which was a dependency of the EIC.

Duar War and Treaty of Sinchula (Ten Article Treaty of Rawa Pani) (1865)

• In 1863, a brief war broke out between the British and Bhutan. In 1864, the British launched the Duar War. Bhutan was defeated, and peace was concluded by the Treaty of Sinchula, signed in 1865, by which:
  • Bhutan ceded all the Bengal and Assam Duars
  • The British agreed to pay Bhutan an annual payment of Rs.50,000.

The relations of the Bhutan with Great Britain started growing to the extent that the Bhutanese king accompanied Col. Younghusband to visit Lhasa (Tibet) to sign a convention in 1904 through which Tibet agreed to end its special ties with Bhutan in favour of the Britishers.

Treaty of Punakha (Treaty of Friendship) (1910)

• A fresh treaty, the Treaty of Punakha, was concluded in 1910, by which:
  • Bhutan surrendered her foreign relations to British India and accepted the latter as arbiter in her disputes with Cooch Behar and Sikkim.
  • Britain increased the annual subsidy to Bhutan to Rs.100,000 and assured that they would not interfere in Bhutan’s internal affairs.
• After India’s independence, a new treaty was signed in 1949, and the government of India further increased the allotted payment to Bhutan to Rs 500,000 a year.

Relations with Sikkim

• By the end of the 18th century, the Gorkhas took control of Sikkim. However, after the Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16), the British restored Sikkim’s independence.
  • The Treaty of Sugauli (1816) (between the British and Nepal): The British annexed the territories of the Sikkim captured by Nepal.
  • The Treaty of Titalia (1817) (between the British and Sikkim): The British restored the territory of Sikkim to the Kingdom of Sikkim, ruled by Chogyal monarchs.
    • The Treaty of Titalia was signed between the Chogyal (monarch) of the Kingdom of Sikkim and the British EIC.
    • It returned Sikkimese land annexed by the Nepalese over the centuries and guaranteed the security of Sikkim by the British.
• The British had their vested interests in befriending Sikkim, including:
  • To open a direct trade route through Sikkim to Tibet as an alternative to the route through Nepal.
  • To counter increasing Russian intrusion into Tibet.
• The Anglo-Sikkimese ties began to deteriorate in 1835 when Sikkim had to give Darjeeling to the
  British in return for an annual subsidy of Rs.3000.
• Relations between Sikkim and the British soured further in 1849 when a minor quarrel led Dalhousie to send troops into Sikkim. This resulted in the British annexation of Darjeeling and a major portion of the Sikkimese Morang (terai) territory. Another clash occurred in 1860.
• In 1861, the Treaty of Tumlong reduced Sikkim to the status of a virtual protectorate.
• 1886, fresh trouble arose when the Tibetans tried to bring Sikkim under their control. The Government of India carried out military operations against the Tibetans in Sikkim in 1888. The final settlement came in 1890 with the signing of an Anglo-Chinese agreement.

Anglo-Chinese Agreement or Convention of Calcutta (1890)

• Anglo-Chinese Agreement was a treaty between Britain and China relating to Tibet and the Kingdom of Sikkim. The Viceroy of India, Lord Lansdowne, and the Chinese Amban in Tibet, Sheng Tai, signed the treaty on 17 March 1890 in Calcutta, India.
• The treaty recognised that Sikkim was a British protectorate over whose internal administration and foreign relations the Government of India had the right to exorcise exclusive control. It also demarcated the Sikkim–Tibet border.
  • British protected states represented a more loose form of British suzerainty, where the local rulers retained control over the states’ internal affairs, and the British exercised control over defence and foreign affairs.
• China is said to have negotiated the treaty without consulting Tibet, and the Tibetans refused to recognise it.

Sikkim’s merger

Relations with Tibet

Nominal Suzerainty of the Chinese Empire

• Tibet is located to the north of India and is separated from India by the Himalayan mountain range.
• Tibet was ruled by a Buddhist religious aristocracy (the lamas). The chief political authority was exercised by the Dalai Lama, who claimed to be the living incarnation of the power of the Buddha.
• The lamas wanted to isolate Tibet from the rest of the world. They acknowledged the nominal suzerainty of the Chinese Empire to repel foreign threats.
• With no threat from Tibet and China being militarily weak, the British interest in Tibet was purely commercial in the beginning.
• Warren Hastings showed keen commercial interest in the region and sent two missions, one in 1774 and another in 1783. However, the isolationist and suspicious Dalai Lama (the ruler) declined the offer to establish trade relations with the British EIC.

British interest in Tibet

• Both Britain and Russia were keen to promote relations with Tibet. British policy towards Tibet was governed by economic and political considerations.
  • Economically, the British wanted to develop the Indo-Tibetan trade and exploit its rich mineral resources.
  • Politically, they wanted to safeguard the northern frontier of India.
• However, until the end of the 19th century, the Tibetan authorities blocked all British efforts to penetrate it.
• At the beginning of the 20th century, Russian influence in Tibet increased. The British government perceived this as threatening India’s security from the northern side.
• Under Lord Curzon, the British government decided to take immediate action to counter Russian moves and bring Tibet under its system of protected border states.
  • According to some historians, the Russian danger was not real and was merely used as an excuse by Curzon to intervene in Tibet.

Expedition to Lhasa

• In March 1904, Curzon sent a military expedition to Lhasa, the Capital of Tibet, under Francis Young-husbdnd. Younghusbdnd started his march into Tibet through Sikkim. During this expedition, 700 Tibetans were killed.
• Younghusbdnd reached Lhasa in August 1904, and after prolonged negotiations, a Treaty of Lhasa was signed, by which:
  • Tibet was reduced to the status of a protectorate of the British.
  • Tibet was to pay Rs. 25 lakhs as indemnity
  • The Chumbi Valley was to be occupied by the British for three years.
  • A British trade mission was to be stationed at Gyantse (a town in Tibet).
• The British agreed not to interfere in Tibet’s internal affairs. On their part, the Tibetans agreed not to admit the representatives of any foreign power into Tibet.
• The British accomplished little during the Tibetan expedition. Although it led to Russia’s withdrawal from Tibet, it confirmed China’s suzerainty in 1906.

Anglo-Chinese Convention (1906)

• Anglo-Chinese Convention was a treaty signed between the Qing Dynasty of China and the British Empire in 1906.
• This treaty, which was signed in the absence of Tibet, reaffirmed the Chinese suzerainty over Tibet. By the terms of the treaty:
  • The British agreed not to annex or interfere in Tibet in return for indemnity from the Chinese
    government.
  • China agreed not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with Tibet’s territory or internal administration.

Shimla Conference 1913

• After the Chinese Revolution of 1911, the. Dalai Lama announced his independence.
• Instead of recognising Tibet as an independent state, the British invited representatives of China and Tibet to a tripartite conference in Shimla in May 1913. At the conference:
  • The Tibetans sought to acknowledge their independence, repudiate the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906, and the revision of the trade regulations.
  • The Chinese Government wanted that their sovereignty over Tibet should be recognised and their right to control foreign and military affairs of the country should be accepted.
  • The British were more interested in the Indo-Tibetan border than Tibet’s internal problems.
• On 27 April 1914, two agreements were concluded.
  1. Tibet was divided into two zones, ‘Outer Tibet’ and ‘Inner Tibet’. Chinese suzerainty over the whole of Tibet was recognised.
     • Outer Tibet would remain in the hands of the Tibetan Government at Lhasa under Chinese suzerainty, but China would not interfere in its administration.
     • Inner Tibet would be under the jurisdiction of the Chinese government.
  2. It was decided to draw a boundary between Tibet and British India (McMahon line).
• However, China refused to ratify the conference’s agreement (including the demarcated border) and did not accept Tibet as an independent nation.

The 19th century in India was a period of profound socio-economic and political changes under British colonial rule. Among these transformations was the emergence of the middle class and a new elite class, groups that played a pivotal role in the intellectual, political, and cultural developments of the period. These groups were distinct from the traditional aristocracy and peasantry, representing a new socio-economic force shaped by colonial policies, education, and economic changes. Their attitudes toward social reform evolved significantly over the decades, particularly after 1870, as they navigated the challenges of modernity and tradition.

Factors Responsible for the Rise of the Middle and New Elite Class

1. British Educational Policies:
The cornerstone of the middle class’s emergence was the introduction of Western education. Starting with the Charter Act of 1813, British policies aimed to produce a class of Indians proficient in English to serve as intermediaries in administration and commerce. Lord Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835) emphasized English as the medium of instruction, creating a generation of Indians well-versed in Western thought, science, and philosophy. Institutions like Hindu College (1817) in Calcutta and the universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1857) produced a Western-educated intelligentsia that formed the nucleus of the new middle class.

2. Expansion of Administrative and Professional Opportunities:
The British administrative framework expanded significantly in the 19th century, creating new job opportunities. Indians were recruited into subordinate positions in the Indian Civil Service, legal professions, railways, postal services, and education. This professional class, though subordinate to Europeans, gained social prestige and financial security, becoming the backbone of the new elite.

3. Growth of Urban Centers:
Urbanization played a crucial role in the emergence of the middle class. Cities like Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, and Lahore became administrative, industrial, and cultural hubs under colonial rule. These cities provided opportunities in trade, commerce, and public services, fostering the growth of a professional and mercantile middle class.

4. Economic Changes:
The Industrial Revolution in Britain had a profound impact on India. While it de-industrialized traditional Indian industries, it created opportunities in sectors like railways, tea plantations, and mining. Indian entrepreneurs, particularly from communities like the Marwaris, Parsis, and Chettiars, amassed wealth by engaging in trade and industry, forming a segment of the new elite.

5. Social and Religious Reforms:
The early 19th century witnessed a wave of reform movements, such as the Brahmo Samaj (founded by Raja Rammohan Roy) and the Arya Samaj (led by Dayananda Saraswati), which emphasized rationalism, education, and social justice. These movements inspired educated Indians to challenge orthodox practices, creating a class of progressive leaders committed to societal improvement.

6. Press and Print Media:
The growth of vernacular and English-language newspapers and journals, such as The Hindu, Amrita Bazar Patrika, and Kesari, helped shape public opinion and fostered political awareness among the middle class. These publications became platforms for debating social, economic, and political issues, amplifying the voice of the new elite.

Attitude Toward Social Reform After 1870

After 1870, the middle and elite classes became increasingly involved in addressing social issues, but their approach was shaped by their specific socio-political context. Their attitudes toward reform evolved in three broad phases:

1. Reform-Oriented Phase (1870s–1890s):
The middle class and elite were initially enthusiastic about social reform. Many were influenced by Western ideas of liberalism, rationalism, and equality, as well as the earlier reformist traditions of figures like Rammohan Roy. Their focus was on eradicating social evils such as caste discrimination, child marriage, sati, and the denial of women’s rights.

Leaders like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar championed widow remarriage, while reformist groups like the Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj campaigned against caste oppression and emphasized education for women. Legal reforms, such as the Age of Consent Act of 1891, which raised the minimum age of marriage for girls, were often the result of their efforts.

However, this phase also witnessed resistance from orthodox groups, who perceived these reforms as an attack on Indian traditions. The reformists, while progressive, were careful to align their advocacy with Indian cultural values to avoid alienating the broader population.

2. Rise of Nationalist Concerns (1890s–1920s):
By the late 19th century, the focus of the middle and elite classes began to shift from social reform to political reform and nationalism. The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 provided a platform for addressing political grievances against colonial rule. Many leaders, such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, emerged from the ranks of the middle class.

Their emphasis on nationalism influenced their attitude toward social reform. They argued that political independence should take precedence over internal social issues, which could be addressed after achieving self-rule. Tilak, for instance, opposed the Age of Consent Act, viewing it as unnecessary British interference in Indian society.

While the reformist zeal did not vanish, it took a back seat to the struggle for independence. This shift reflected the growing tension between the reformist and nationalist priorities of the middle class.

3. Rise of Conservatism and Pragmatism (Post-1920s):
After 1920, the middle class and new elite became more conservative in their approach to social reform. This was partly due to the influence of leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, who emphasized a return to Indian traditions and values. Gandhi’s approach to social issues, such as untouchability, differed from earlier reformers; he sought to address these problems within the framework of Indian culture rather than adopting Western solutions.

The elite also became increasingly pragmatic, recognizing the limitations of colonial rule in implementing reforms. They focused on self-help initiatives, such as establishing schools, libraries, and cooperative societies, to uplift marginalized communities. While they supported gradual reform, their efforts were often constrained by the complexities of balancing tradition, reform, and the nationalist agenda.

Conclusion

The rise of the middle and new elite class in 19th-century India was a transformative development driven by education, economic changes, and the expansion of professional opportunities under British rule. Their attitudes toward social reform reflected their complex position as intermediaries between tradition and modernity. While their initial efforts focused on addressing social evils and promoting education, the growing nationalist sentiment after 1870 shifted their priorities toward political reform. This dual commitment to reform and nationalism defined their legacy, as they laid the groundwork for both India’s modern social institutions and the struggle for independence.

Brahmo Samaj was a powerful religious movement in India that contributed significantly to the development of contemporary India. It was founded on August 20, 1828, in Calcutta, by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Dwarkanath Tagore as a reformation of the prevailing Brahmanism of the time (specifically Kulin practices), and it launched the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth century, which pioneered all religious, social, and educational advancements of the Hindu community. 

Background

• In August 1828, Raja Rammohan Roy formed the Brahmo Sabha, which was eventually renamed Brahmo Samaj.
• He intended to formalize his views and goals through the Sabha.
• “Worship and devotion of the Eternal, Unsearchable, Immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe,” the Samaj stated.
• Prayers, meditation, and Upanishad readings were to be the modes of worship, and no graven image, statue or sculpture, carving, painting, picture, portrait, or other similar object was to be permitted in Samaj structures, emphasizing the Samaj’s aversion to idolatry and useless rituals.
• The Brahmo Samaj’s long-term aim, to cleanse Hinduism and promote monotheism, was founded on reason and the Vedas and Upanishads.
• The Samaj also attempted to assimilate teachings from other religions while maintaining its emphasis on human dignity, rejection of idolatry, and condemnation of societal ills like sati.
• Rammohan Roy was opposed to the formation of a new religion.
• He merely wished to rid Hinduism of the wicked practices that had infiltrated the religion.
• Traditionalists like Raja Radhakant Deb, who founded the Dharma Sabha to combat Brahmo Samaj propaganda, were vocal in their opposition to Roy’s progressive ideals.

Features

• Polytheism and idol worship were condemned.
• It abandoned belief in heavenly avataras (incarnations).
• It rejected the idea that any text could have ultimate power over human reason and conscience.
• It maintained no firm stance on the doctrines of karma and soul transmigration, leaving individual Brahmos to believe what they wanted.
• The caste system was criticized.
• Its primary goal was to worship the everlasting God. Priesthood, ceremonies, and sacrifices were all condemned.
• It centered on prayers, meditation, and scripture reading. It thought that all religions should be together.
• It was contemporary India’s first intellectual reform movement.
• It resulted in the growth of rationality and enlightenment in India, which aided the nationalist cause indirectly.

Significance

• Many dogmas and superstitions were tackled by the Samaj in terms of social change.
• It denounced the prevalent Hindu anti-foreign travel bias.
• It campaigned for sati to be abolished, the purdah system to be abolished, child marriage and polygamy to be discouraged, widow remarriage to be encouraged, and educational opportunities to be provided.
• It also took on casteism and untouchability, but with limited success in these areas.
• The Brahmo Samaj’s impact, on the other hand, was limited to Calcutta and, at most, Bengal. It had no long-term consequences.
• It was the first intellectual reform movement in contemporary India, in which societal problems were criticized and attempts were made to eradicate them.
• It resulted in the growth of rationality and enlightenment in India, which aided the nationalist cause indirectly.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj were instrumental in bringing Indian society’s attention to the serious challenges of the day.
• It was the progenitor of all contemporary India’s social, religious, and political movements.

Brahmo Samaj and Debendranath Tagore

• When he joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1842, Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (1817–1905), father of Rabindranath Tagore and a product of the best in traditional Indian learning and Western intellect, gave the theist movement a new vitality and a defined form and structure.
• Previously, Tagore was the leader of the Tattvabodhini Sabha (established in 1839), which was dedicated to the methodical study of India’s past with a rational perspective, as well as the spread of Rammohan’s ideals through its organ Tattvabodhini Patrika in Bengali.
• Due to the informal union of the two sabhas, the Brahmo Samaj gained new energy and strength of membership.
• The Brahmo Samaj grew throughout time to include famous Rammohan followers, Derozians, and independent thinkers like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Ashwini Kumar Datta.
• Tagore operated on two fronts: the Brahmo Samaj was a reformist movement inside Hinduism, and it strongly fought Christian missionaries for their critique of Hinduism and attempts at conversion outside of Hinduism.
• The revived Samaj advocated for widow remarriage, women’s education, polygamy abolition, better ryot circumstances, and temperance.

Brahmo Samaj and Keshab Chandra Sen

• When Debendranath Tagore appointed Keshab Chandra Sen (1838–84) as acharya shortly after the latter joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1858, the Brahmo Samaj witnessed a new burst of vitality.
• Outside of Bengal, branches of the Samaj were established in the United Provinces, Punjab, Bombay, Madras, and other cities, thanks to the efforts of Keshab.
• The Brahmo Samaj of India was created by Keshab and his supporters in 1866, whereas Debendranath Tagore’s Samaj became known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj.
• Keshab’s incomprehensible conduct of marrying his 13-year-old daughter to the minor Hindu Maharaja of Cooch-Behar with all the customary Hindu ceremonies sparked another division in Keshab ‘s Brahmo Samaj of India in 1878.
• Some of Keshab’s followers had begun to regard him as an incarnation, much to the chagrin of his progressive followers.
• In addition, Keshab was accused of authoritarianism.
• After 1878, Keshab’s disgruntled supporters formed the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, a new organization.
• Ananda Mohan Bose, Sib Chandra Deb, and Umeshchandra Dutta founded the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj.
• The Brahmo teachings of faith in a Supreme being, one God, the conviction that no scripture or man is infallible, and belief in the demands of reason, truth, and morality were all restated.
• In the Madras province, several Brahmo centers have been established.
• In Punjab, the Dayal Singh Trust established Dayal Singh College in Lahore in 1910 to instill Brahmo beliefs.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born on May 22, 1772, in Radhanagar, Bengal, to an orthodox Brahman family.
• Ram Mohan Roy had his early education in Patna, where he studied Persian and Arabic and read the Quran, Sufi mystic poets’ writings, and Arabic translations of Plato and Aristotle’s works.
• He learned Sanskrit and perused the Vedas and Upnishads in Banaras.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the father of Modern India’s Renaissance and a relentless social reformer who ushered in India’s period of enlightenment and liberal reformist modernization.
• In November 1930, he set sail for England, where he would be there to prevent the repeal of the Sati Act.
• The putative Mughal Emperor of Delhi, Akbar II, bestowed the title of ‘Raja’ to Ram Mohan Roy, who was to express his concerns to the British king.
• Tagore alluded to Ram Mohan as “a dazzling light in the firmament of Indian history” in his presentation, titled “Inaugurator of the Modern Age in India.”
• Ram Mohan Roy was heavily inspired by Western contemporary ideas, emphasizing rationality and a scientific attitude to life.
• The religious and social deterioration of Ram Mohan Roy’s home Bengal was his urgent challenge.
• Instead of helping to ameliorate society’s state, he considered that religious orthodoxies had become sources of harm and detriment to social life, as well as sources of problem and befuddlement for the people.
• Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhiddin (a gift to deists), Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s first published work, was published in 1803 and revealed illogical Hindu religious beliefs and immoral practices such as believing in revelations, prophets, and miracles.
• In Calcutta, he established the Atmiya Sabha in 1814 to fight idolatry, caste rigidities, useless rituals, and other societal problems.
• Roy did a lot to spread the word about the advantages of contemporary education to his fellow people.
• While Roy’s English school taught mechanics and Voltaire’s philosophy, he backed David Hare’s attempts to create the Hindu College in 1817.
• In 1825, he founded Vedanta College, which provided education in both Indian and Western social and physical sciences.

Conclusion

India’s Brahmo Samaj is even more radical, emphasizing female education and caste disparities. The creation of the Indian Reform Association in 1870 led to the passage of the Indian Marriage Act in 1872, which legalized inter-caste marriage. Since the special relationship to Hinduism has been lost, Samaj has become more general. Along with Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, and other religions were now included.

Arya Samaj is a monotheistic Hindu reform movement in India that supports principles and practices based on the Vedas’ irrefutable authority. On 10 April 1875, the sannyasi (ascetic) Dayanand Saraswati created the samaj. Arya Samaj was the first Hindu group to practice proselytization. Since 1800, the group has also campaigned to advance the civil rights struggle in India.

Background

• Swami Dayananda Saraswati (1824-83) founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. He was a Sanskrit expert who had never studied English.
• He issued the slogan, “Back to the Vedas.”
• He was unconcerned with the Puranas. Swami learned Vedanta from a blind instructor named Swami Virajananda in Mathura. His viewpoints were similar to Ram Mohan Roy’s.
• The Arya Samaj’s social values include, among other things, God’s fatherhood and Man’s fraternity, gender equality, total justice, and fair play between man and man and country and nation.
• Intercaste marriages were also promoted, as were widow remarriages.
• Disbelief in polytheism and image worship, hostility to caste-based limitations, child marriage, opposition to the ban of sea journeys, and advocacy for female education and widow remarriage were all key programs shared by Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj members.
• Swami Dayananda Saraswati, like other reformers of his day, held the Vedas to be everlasting and infallible.

Features

• Believes in the infallibility of the Vedas and regards them as the ultimate source of all truth and knowledge.
• It was believed that post-Vedic books such as Puranas were to blame for the contamination of the Vedic religion.
• Opposes God’s idolatry and reincarnation idea, but supports the notion of ‘Karma’ and soul transmigration.
• Dayanand also rejected the doctrine of fate/destiny Niyati.
• Believes in a single God who does not have a physical existence.
• Rejects Brahmanical domination over Hindu spiritual and social life. Brahmins’ claim to be conduits between man and God is condemned.
• Supported the Four Varna System, however, it should be based on merit rather than birth.
• Everyone has an equal position in the spiritual and social lives of Hindus.
• Advocated for women’s equality in society. There is no place for any type of gender discrimination against women.
• Supported widow remarriage and female education while opposing polygamy, child marriage, Sati, and other practices.
• Supported the spread of Hindi and Sanskrit. Considered good education to be the foundation of a decent and robust social order.
• It conducted outstanding work in the realm of education, particularly for women.
• Animal sacrifices, religious pilgrimages, feeding the dead through sraddhas, sorcery and charms, and other socio-religious sins are condemned.
• According to Swami Dayanand, these sins occur in society owing to a lack of understanding of the Vedic teachings.

Ten Guiding Principles of the Arya Samaj

• God is the originator of all real knowledge.
• God alone is deserving of worship as the all-truth, all-knowledge, omnipotent, immortal, creator of the Universe.
• The Vedas are the genuine scriptures of wisdom.
• An Arya should always be willing to embrace the truth and reject the lie.
• The guiding concept of all activities should be dharma or careful consideration of right and evil.
• The Samaj’s primary goal is to promote global well-being in material, spiritual, and social terms.
• Everyone deserves to be treated with compassion and justice.
• Ignorance must be removed, and knowledge must be expanded.
• One’s advancement should be dependent on the advancement of all others.
• The collective well-being of humanity is to take precedence above an individual’s well-being.

Significance

• The Arya Samaj set the minimum marriageable age for guys at 25 years old and girls at 16 years old.
• Swami Dayananda reportedly derisively referred to the Hindu race as “the offspring of children.”
• The Arya Samaj became well-known for its humanitarian work after natural disasters such as earthquakes, famines, and floods. It also took the lead in promoting education.
• After Dayananda’s death in 1883, the samaj’s work was carried on by prominent members. Education was a critical area for the samaj.
• The Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V.) The college was founded in Lahore in 1886.
• The Arya Samaj was able to instill self-esteem and confidence in Hindus, which aided in dispelling the illusion of white supremacy and Western civilization.
• In order to safeguard Hindu civilization from the invasion of Christianity and Islam, the Samaj launched the shuddhi (purification) movement, which sought to reintegrate converts to Christianity and Islam into Hindu society.
• During the 1920s, an active shuddhi movement resulted in increased communication of social life, which eventually snowballed into communal political consciousness.
• The shuddhi movement also tried to convert persons considered untouchables and outside the Hindu caste system into pure caste Hindus.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

• Swami Dayananda Saraswati, a social and religious reformer, was born on February 12, 1824. He was born in the Gujarat town of Tankara.
• On April 7, 1875, he established the Arya Samaj.
• Dayananda, born Mul Shankar Tiwari, was a prominent Hindu religious reformer.
• After his sister and uncle died, he began to explore the purpose of life.
• Mul Shankar, who was engaged to be married when he was in his teens, decided he wanted to live an ascetic life and ran away from home.
• During this period, he began to practice Yoga. Virajanand Dandeesha was his spiritual instructor.
• Dayananda saw that Hinduism has deviated from its roots. He promised his Guru that he would work hard to restore the Vedas to their due place in the Hindu faith and way of life.
• He warned against the practice of making contributions to priests.
• He emphasized One God and condemned idol worship via this reform effort. He also spoke out against the revered role of priests in Hinduism.
• He was hostile to the diversity of castes. Furthermore, he believed that the conversion of lower castes to Christianity and Islam was mostly due to caste multiplicity.
• He also founded Vedic schools to educate females and boys of all castes. Students at these schools were provided with free literature, clothes, shelter, and food, as well as instruction in the Vedas and other ancient writings.
• Arya Samaj conducted a long-running campaign against untouchability and pushed for the abolition of caste inequalities.
• The establishment of the Dayanand Anglo Vedic Trust and Management Society in Lahore in 1886 was an attempt to unify the samaj and its operations.
• They also campaigned for the protection of widows and other social causes such as assisting victims of natural or man-made disasters.
• He wrote a lot of novels. Satyartha Prakash is his most notable contribution. Other books include the Sanskarvidhi, the Rig Veda Bhashyam, and many more.

Conclusion

Arya Samaj created a network of DAV educational institutions for both boys and girls. It represented a type of Indian national awakening and brought hundreds of nationalist Indians into its fold. It played a particularly progressive role in the early phases of national awakening when it challenged religious superstitions, brahmin domination, polytheism, and untouchability, and when it later accepted the policy of mass education, sub-caste eradication, and equality of men and women.

British colonial rulers opposed the growing Indian national consciousness in the late nineteenth century. British scholars dismissed India as a mere ‘geographical expression,’ with some doubting its ability to unify as a nation.

During the 19th century, with the evident growth and strengthening of nationalism, certain British scholars adopted a new stance, started giving credit to the British Raj for the growth of Indian nationalism. Contrary to this narrative, the truth was that Indian nationalism emerged as an unwelcome offspring of the Raj, an entity it initially neglected and later sought to suppress.

Thus, a more accurate perspective recognizes Indian nationalism as a product of a blend of diverse factors.

Factors

Growth of Vernacular Literature

The influence of Western education prompted the educated Indians to reflect the idea of liberty, freedom, and nationalism through the vernacular literature. They aimed at arousing the masses to oppose British rule being surcharged by the spirit of nationalism. 

• Bankim Chandra Chatterji’s Anand Math (which contained the song Vande Mataram) and Dinabandhu Mitra’s play Nil Darpan extorted tremendous influence upon the people and created anti-British feelings among them. 
• Bhartendu Harish Chandra’s play Bharat Durdasa reflected the miserable condition of the Indian masses under British rule.

Besides several eminent poets and writers in different languages, e.g., Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali, Vishnushastri Chiplunkar in Marathi, Lakshminath Bezbaroa in Assamese, Mohammad Hussain Azad and Altaf Hussain Hali in Urdu, etc. contributed a lot to rouse nationalism among the local people through their writings.

Rediscovery of India’s Past

Historical research in ancient Indian history, predominantly conducted by European scholars such as Max Muller, Monier William, Roth, and Session, and Indian scholars like R.G. Bhandarkar, R.L. Mitra, and later Swami Vivekananda, unveiled India’s rich cultural heritage. This portrayal showcased well-developed political, economic, and social institutions, thriving trade, a rich cultural heritage, and numerous cities in India’s past. 

• Archaeological excavations led by scholars like Marshall and Cunningham presented a compelling narrative of India’s past grandeur, akin to the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome. Scholars lauded the literary merit and profound psychological insights of the Vedas and Upanishads.  
• The European theory suggesting that the Indo-Aryans shared a common ethnic origin with European nations provided a psychological uplift for educated Indians. 

This newfound historical awareness instilled a sense of pride, confidence, and a renewed spirit of patriotism and nationalism among the educated elite. The gained self-respect and confidence empowered nationalists to dispel colonial myths, challenging the notion of India having a history of prolonged servility to foreign rulers.

Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia

Rise of the Urban Middle Class: British administrative and economic innovations gave birth to a new urban middle class in towns. This class, driven by the prospect of employment and a sense of prestige linked to English proficiency, swiftly embraced the language. Distinguished by education, a new social standing, and close ties with the ruling class, it emerged prominently.

• Modern India’s Leadership: This dynamic middle class became the driving force of modern India, ultimately infusing the entire nation with its spirit. It assumed a leadership role in all stages of growth for the Indian National Congress, reflecting its significance in shaping modern India.

Progressive Character of Socio-religious Reform Movements

In the 19th century, educated Indians critically re-evaluated their religious beliefs, customs, and social practices in light of Western science and philosophy. This led to various reform movements in Hinduism, such as the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and Theosophical Society. Similar movements also reformed Muslim, Sikh, and Parsi societies.

• Goals of Reform Movements: The objective of these reform movements was to eradicate religious evils like superstition, idolatry, polytheism, and hereditary priesthood, and social evils like caste discrimination, untouchability, and other inequalities that had fragmented Indian society, and advocating for societal recognition based on democratic principles and the ideas of individual and social equality, reason, enlightenment, and liberalism. 
• Impact of Reformers: These reformers advocated for human equality, individual liberty, and the abolition of social disparities. Their efforts transformed the mindset of Indians, awakening them from centuries of subjugation.

This endeavor had the outcome of uniting diverse sections of society and emerged as a significant factor in the development of Indian nationalism.

Impact of Contemporary Movements in the World

The prevailing strong currents of nationalist ideas in Europe and South America had a significant influence on Indian nationalism. 

• The emergence of several national states in South America following the decline of the Spanish and Portuguese empires, along with the national liberation movements in Greece, Italy, and notably Ireland in Europe, profoundly resonated with the sentiments of Indians.

Educated Indians, while touring Europe, were greatly inspired by these nationalist movements.

• For example, Surendranath Banerji delivered lectures on Joseph Mazzini and the “Young Italy” movement organized by him. 
• Lala Lajpat Rai frequently referenced the campaigns of Garibaldi and the activities of Carbonaris in his speeches and writings. 

Therefore, the developing nationalism in India received power from the developing nationalism in Europe.

Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers (Racialism)

The British, through a deliberate strategy of discrimination and segregation, aimed to perpetuate racial myths of white superiority, deeply injuring the sentiments of Indians. 

• Lytton’s policy aimed to decrease the maximum age limit for the I.C.S. examination from 21 to 19 years (1876).
• Holding a grand Delhi Durbar (1877) during a severe famine sparked criticism and resentment among the Indian population.
• The legislation imposed restrictions on the vernacular press (1878), curbing freedom of the press and expression.
• Enactment of the Arms Act (1878) imposed restrictions on the possession of arms, perceived as oppressive.
• The Ilbert Bill (1883) controversy followed, where Ripon attempted to eliminate  “judicial disqualification based on race distinctions” and grant equal powers to Indian members of the civil service.
• Due to strong opposition from the European community, the Ilbert Bill had to be modified, compromising its original intent. The organized agitation by Europeans to revoke the Ilbert Bill also served as a lesson for nationalists in advocating for their rights and demands.

A regrettable aftermath of the Rebellion of 1857 was the emergence of racial bitterness between the rulers and the ruled. Illustrations in the Punch portrayed Indians as a combination of half-gorilla and half-negro. 

• The Anglo-Indian bureaucracy adopted an attitude of arrogance and contempt toward the Indians, subscribing to the belief that the only effective argument with them was superior force. 
• This led to the development of a European social code of ethics and the formulation of the theory of a superior race. Europeans concluded that Indians belonged to an inferior race, devoid of trustworthiness, often branding them as a nation of liars, perjurers, and forgers.
•  The Anglo-Indian lobby produced literature promoting these racial stereotypes, particularly against the English. 

This narrow-minded perspective triggered a defensive reaction among educated Indians.

Economic Exploitation by the Britishers

The impact of British rule on the Indian economy was calamitous, as described by Jawaharlal Nehru, who noted that foreign political domination led to the rapid destruction of the economy India had built up, resulting in “poverty and degradation beyond measure.” Despite claims of social welfare by some British scholars, the actual objective of British policies was the systematic destruction of the traditional Indian economy.

British policies in India, spanning agriculture, heavy industry, finance, tariffs, foreign capital investment, foreign trade, and banking, were all designed to preserve the colonial economy. Despite British intentions, modern capitalist enterprise emerged in India in the 1860s, causing concern among British textile manufacturers. 

• Economic Motives Behind British Expansion: In the first half of the nineteenth century, Britain, in the throes of the Industrial Revolution, sought cheap raw materials and a market for its industrial products. 
• The controversy over Cotton Duties is a prime example, with British capitalists lobbying for changes that suited their sectional interests. 
• The £-Re-exchange ratio was manipulated to the disadvantage of Indian industry and foreign trade, making it evident that when British economic interests clashed with Indian economic development, the latter was sacrificed.
• Economic Stagnation: Extravagant civil and military administration, denial of high posts to Indians, mounting “Home Charges,” and the continuous drain of wealth from India resulted in the stagnation of the Indian economy. 
• Famine Crisis:: Periodic famines, with 24 occurring during the second half of the 19th century, claimed an estimated toll of 28 million lives.
  • Even during famines, food grain exports from India continued.
• Landlordism and Exploitation: The British, in collaboration with local money lenders, created absentee landlords, perpetuating the exploitation of the Indian masses and plunging them deeper into poverty.
  • The detrimental impact of British exploitation was evident in the Indian economy, as highlighted by Dadabhai Naoroji’s theory of agricultural decay and the criticisms of G. V. Josh and Ranade against the decline of Indian handicrafts.

The discriminatory economic and fiscal policies of the British sparked a sharp reaction and gave rise to economic nationalism in India.  Indian nationalists formulated the “theory of increasing poverty in India,” attributing it to Britain’s anti-India economic policies. This narrative linked poverty with foreign rule, fostering a hatred for foreign rule and a preference for Swadeshi goods and Swadeshi rule. This psychological shift provided a significant boost to the spirit of nationalism.

Emergence of Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 under the leadership of A.O. Hume. Originally known as the Indian Nation Union, the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885 was not a coincidence. It emerged as a result of a political awakening process that began in the 1860s and 1870s, culminating in the late 1870s and early 1880s. 

This process experienced a significant turning point in 1885 when modern political thinkers, who saw themselves as champions of the nation’s interests rather than specific interest groups, witnessed the fruition of their efforts. They formed a nationalist organization that operated on a pan-Indian scale, serving as a platform, coordinator, focal point, and representation of the emerging national politics.

History

• The Indian National Congress was founded by 72 delegates on December 28, 1885, at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Mumbai (then Bombay). It was created by former Indian Civil Services Officer Allan Octavian Hume. The Congress was established to foster a climate that would allow for polite dialogue between Indians and the British.
• Only educated Indians were invited to the Congress. Through the Congress, the British could gain support for their rule in India. This was made feasible because educated Indians were more receptive to modernization concepts and could therefore influence other Indians. The General Secretary of the Congress was Allan Octavian Hume, and the President of the Congress was Womesh Chunder Banerjee.

Foundation

• The foundation for the establishment of a pan-Indian organization began to take shape in the late 1870s and early 1880s. A.O. Hume, a retired English civil official, played a crucial role in crystallizing this idea by seeking the assistance of prominent intellectuals of that era.
• To hold the inaugural session, Hume obtained permission from Lord Dufferin, who was the viceroy of India at the time. However, due to a cholera outbreak in Poona, the original location, the session was moved to Bombay. In 1883, Hume expressed his desire to create an organization that would represent educated Indians and advocate for increased participation in government. He conveyed this intention through an open letter addressed to graduates of Calcutta University.
• An important milestone in the history of the Indian National Congress was the participation of Kadambini Ganguly, the first woman to graduate from Calcutta University. In 1890, she delivered a speech at the Congress, highlighting the commitment of the freedom movement to ensuring equal rights and opportunities for Indian women in public life.

Feature

• The Indian National Congress (INC) was the first nationwide political movement in India, initially focused on promoting Indian participation in governmental affairs. However, its objective later evolved to strive for complete independence from British rule. After India gained independence, the INC transformed into a prominent political force within the country. In its early stages, the INC followed a moderate approach, employing constitutional means and discourse as its primary tactics.
• During this period, the party’s demands were limited to advocating for increased representation of Indians in the armed services and government, without explicitly discussing independence. Over time, the party’s demands and strategies became more radical.
• By 1905, clear divisions had emerged within the party. The more recent faction, known as the extremists, employed more radical tactics, while the long-standing moderates pursued a more restrained approach. Alongside the Indian National Congress, provincial conferences, associations, newspapers, and literature also played significant roles in the nationalist movement.

Objective

• The primary objective of the Indian National Congress (INC) was to promote and enhance Indian participation in governmental affairs. As the country’s first large-scale political movement, the INC aimed to establish friendly connections among nationalist political activists from different regions of the nation. It sought to foster a sense of national unity that transcended barriers of caste, religion, and province.
• The INC had multiple goals, including the compilation and submission of a list of general demands to the government. Additionally, the organization aimed to organize and shape public opinion across the country. It actively worked towards creating and promoting an anti-colonial nationalist ideology while upholding a strong sense of national unity among all citizens, irrespective of their religious, caste, or provincial identities.

Role of A. O Hume

• A.O. Hume played a significant role in the establishment and early years of the Indian National Congress (INC). While the idea for an all-India congress was discussed by a small group before Hume’s involvement, it is believed that his Indian Union, which he founded after leaving the Civil Service, contributed to the formation of the Congress.
• Hume, the son of British radical activist Joseph Hume, inherited his father’s political beliefs and initially had an interest in European revolutionary groups. He began his career with the East India Company in 1849 and was stationed in the Northwestern Provinces of India. During his time there, he developed an interest in initiatives aimed at promoting education, addressing social issues, and advancing agriculture. Hume even launched a newspaper in 1861 to raise awareness about political and social matters among the residents of Etawah.
• Hume’s pro-Indian stance and his efforts to improve Indian welfare were not appreciated by other British commanders. In 1870, he became Secretary to the Government of India, but his opinions led Viceroy Northbrook to threaten his dismissal. Hume’s strained relationship with Lord Lytton further led to his demotion in 1879, and he eventually left the civil service in 1882.
• After settling in Shimla, Hume developed a strong interest in Indian politics. He felt a closer connection to the Bombay and Poona factions of Indian leaders rather than those in Calcutta, such as Surendranath Banerjee and Narendra Nath Sen. Hume also acquainted himself with Viceroy Lord Ripon and became interested in his plan for local self-government.
• Overall, A.O. Hume’s background, experiences, and passion for Indian politics contributed significantly to his role as one of the key figures behind the formation of the Indian National Congress.

Foundation Theories

• There are several theories surrounding the foundation of the Indian National Congress (INC). Here are three prominent theories:

Safety Valve Theory (Lala Lajpat Rai)

• According to this theory, proposed by Lala Lajpat Rai, it is speculated that A.O. Hume, a retired English civil officer, established the INC as a means to address the growing discontent and unrest against British rule. It is suggested that Viceroy Dufferin may have suggested the idea of an annual gathering of intelligent Indians for political discussions. However, there is no concrete evidence to support the claim that Dufferin influenced the formation of the INC or that it was intended as a “safety valve” to vent out frustrations.

Conspiracy Theory (R.P. Dutt)

• The conspiracy theory, put forth by Marxist historian R.P. Dutt, suggests that the INC was a scheme orchestrated by bourgeois leaders to suppress a potential uprising of the Indian people. According to this theory, the INC was formed as a deliberate strategy to control and manipulate the nationalist movement.

Lightning Conductor Theory (G.K. Gokhale)

• G.K. Gokhale proposed the Lightning Conductor Theory, which posits that politically aware Indians wanted to establish a national organization to voice their political and economic aspirations. However, if they had attempted to create such an organization independently, the authorities would have strongly opposed it and likely suppressed its existence. Therefore, the early leaders of the INC utilized A.O. Hume as a “lightning conductor” or catalyst to unite patriotic forces and provide a platform for their political aspirations, albeit under the guise of a “safety valve.”
• It is important to note that these theories offer different perspectives on the motives and circumstances surrounding the establishment of the Indian National Congress. The accuracy and validity of each theory may vary, and further research and analysis are necessary to ascertain the true factors that contributed to the foundation of the INC.

Moderate Group

The period between 1885 and 1905 is commonly referred to as the Moderate Phase, led by moderate leaders. During this time, influential figures like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjea, and S.N. Banerjee held prominent positions in Congress and shaped its policies. These leaders were strong advocates of “liberalism” and pursued moderate political approaches. They were known as Moderates to differentiate them from the extremists who emerged in the early twentieth century. The emergence of Indian nationalism in the late 19th century was influenced by various factors such as the spread of Western education, socio-religious reforms, British policies, and other contributing elements.

Features

• During the Moderate Phase, which took place between 1885 and 1905, the Early Nationalists, commonly known as the Moderates, emerged as a significant group of political leaders in India, marking the beginning of the organized national movement. Two prominent moderate leaders were Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji.
• The Moderates consisted primarily of educated middle-class professionals, including lawyers, teachers, and government officials, many of whom had received their education in England. Their political activities followed a constitutional approach, focusing on lawful agitation and demonstrating a gradual and orderly political progression.
• The Moderates held the belief that the British authorities genuinely intended to be fair to the Indians but lacked awareness of the actual conditions in India. They believed that by shaping public opinion within the country and presenting public demands through resolutions, petitions, meetings, and other means, the authorities would gradually meet these demands.
• To achieve their objectives, the Moderates employed a two-pronged strategy. Firstly, they aimed to create strong public opinion to awaken consciousness and foster national spirit among the people. They also worked towards educating and uniting individuals on common political issues. Secondly, they sought to persuade the British government and public opinion to implement reforms in India in line with the nationalist agenda.
• In 1899, a British committee of the Indian National Congress was established in London, serving as its representative body. Dadabhai Naoroji played a significant role in advocating for India’s cause on international platforms, dedicating a considerable portion of his life and resources to this endeavour.
• Although there were plans to hold a session of the Indian National Congress in London in 1892, the proposal was postponed due to the British elections in 1891 and was subsequently not revived.

Objectives

• The objectives of the Moderate Phase during the late 19th and early 20th century in India were as follows:
• Establish a democratic, nationalist movement: The Moderates aimed to create a movement that would advocate for the rights and aspirations of the Indian people within a democratic framework.
• Politicize and politically educate people: The Moderates sought to raise political awareness among the Indian population, particularly the educated middle class, and educate them about their rights and responsibilities as citizens.
• Establish a movement’s headquarters: The Moderates aimed to establish a central headquarters or organization that would serve as a platform for coordinating and directing nationalist activities throughout the country.
• Promote friendly relations among nationalist political workers: The Moderates emphasized the importance of fostering friendly relationships and cooperation among nationalist political workers from different regions of India, with the goal of creating a unified front against colonial rule.
• Create and spread an anti-colonial nationalist ideology: The Moderates aimed to develop and propagate an ideology that emphasized the need to oppose and challenge British colonial rule in India.
• Formulate and present popular demands to the government: The Moderates believed in formulating popular demands related to economic and political reforms, which would serve as a rallying point to unite the Indian people behind a common agenda. These demands would be presented to the government for consideration.
• Develop and consolidate a sense of national unity: The Moderates worked towards fostering a sense of national unity among people of all religions, castes, and provinces in India. They aimed to transcend divisions and create a shared identity based on the idea of Indian nationhood.
• Promote and cultivate Indian nationhood with care: The Moderates recognized the importance of nurturing and preserving the concept of Indian nationhood, paying attention to its development and ensuring its growth in a thoughtful and deliberate manner.

Important Leaders

• The Moderate Phase of the Indian national movement was characterized by the leadership of several prominent figures. Here are some important leaders from that period:
• Dadabhai Naoroji: Often referred to as the “Grand Old Man of India,” he was the first Indian to be elected to the British House of Commons. Naoroji authored the influential book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India,’ which highlighted the economic drain caused by British policies in India.
• Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee: He served as the first president of the Indian National Congress (INC). Bonnerjee, a lawyer by profession, was also the first Indian to serve as Standing Counsel.
• G. Subramania Aiyer: He founded the newspaper ‘The Hindu,’ through which he criticized British imperialism. Aiyer also established the Tamil newspaper ‘Swadesamitran’ and was a co-founder of the Madras Mahajana Sabha.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Gokhale was an influential leader and political mentor to Mahatma Gandhi. He founded the Servants of India Society, which aimed to promote social and political reforms in the country.
• Surendranath Banerjee: Known as ‘Rashtraguru’ and ‘Indian Burke,’ Banerjee founded the Indian National Association, which later merged with the INC. He was also associated with the Bengalee newspaper. Banerjee faced racial discrimination when he was fired from the Indian Civil Service.
• Other notable moderate leaders include Rash Behari Ghosh, R.C. Dutt, M.G. Ranade, Pherozeshah Mehta, P.R. Naidu, Madan Mohan Malaviya, P. Ananda Charlu, and William Wedderburn. These leaders played significant roles in advocating for India’s rights and pushing for political and social reforms during the Moderate Phase.

The method used by the Moderates

• The Moderates employed several methods to advance their objectives during the Moderate Phase of the Indian national movement. Here are some of the key approaches they used:
• Reform Demands and Criticism: The Moderates articulated reform demands and openly criticized government policies. They highlighted the need for social, economic, and political reforms in India.
• Emphasis on Patience and Reconciliation: The Moderates believed in peaceful and non-violent methods. They prioritized patience and reconciliation over violent confrontations, seeking to resolve issues through dialogue and negotiation.
• Constitutional and Peaceful Means: The Moderates relied on constitutional and peaceful means to achieve their goals. They adhered to legal frameworks and advocated for reforms within the existing system.
• Education and Political Consciousness: The Moderates placed great emphasis on educating people and raising their political consciousness. They aimed to inform and engage the public on matters of national importance, fostering a sense of political awareness among the masses.
• Formation of Public Opinion: The Moderates organized lectures and discussions in different parts of India and England to shape public opinion. They utilized platforms to generate awareness and garner support for their cause. The publication of the weekly journal ‘India’ aimed at disseminating information among the British people.
• Criticism through Newspapers and Journals: The Moderates utilized various newspapers and journals to criticize government policies and advocate for reforms. Publications like the Bengali newspaper, Bombay Chronicle, Hindustan Times, Induprakash, Rast Goftar, and the weekly journal India were utilized to voice their concerns and perspectives.
• Advocacy for Government Investigation: The Moderates called for government investigations into the problems faced by the people and sought viable solutions to address these issues.
• Organizing Meetings and Discussions: The Moderates regularly held meetings and discussions to address social, economic, and cultural issues. These gatherings took place in various locations, including England, Mumbai, Allahabad, Pune, and Calcutta, among others.
• By employing these methods, the Moderates sought to create awareness, mobilize public support, and influence policy-making in their pursuit of reform and progress for

Contributions of Moderate Nationalists

• Economic Critique of British Imperialism 
  • The Moderate Nationalists made significant contributions to the Indian national movement. Here are some key areas where they made their mark:
• Economic Critique of British Imperialism: Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha, and others critically examined the political economy of British rule in India. They put forth the “drain theory,” which explained the British exploitation of India’s resources and advocated against the conversion of India’s self-sufficient economy into a colonial one. They created public opinion that British rule was the primary cause of India’s poverty and economic backwardness. They called for an end to economic dependence on Britain, the development of an independent Indian economy, and the involvement of Indian capital and enterprise.
• Demands for Economic Reforms: The Moderate Nationalists demanded various economic reforms to alleviate the deprivation in India. They called for a reduction in inland revenue, the abolition of the salt tax, better working conditions for plantation labourers, and a decrease in military spending, among other measures. Their economic demands aimed to address the exploitative practices and policies of British imperialism in India.
• Advocacy for Constitutional Reforms: Despite limited official power, the Moderate Nationalists actively participated in India’s legislative councils, which were established by the Indian Councils Act (1861). They used these platforms to push for constitutional reforms and to advance the cause of the national movement. While the councils were initially designed as impotent bodies, the work done by the nationalists within them helped in the growth of the national movement.
• Council Expansion and Reform: From 1885 to 1892, the Moderate Nationalists focused on demands for council expansion and reform. They called for greater participation of Indians in the councils and sought more powers for the councils, particularly in terms of control over finances. These demands aimed to increase Indian representation and influence in the decision-making processes of the colonial administration.
• By highlighting the economic exploitation under British rule, advocating for economic reforms, and pushing for constitutional changes, the Moderate Nationalists played a crucial role in shaping public opinion, mobilizing support, and laying the foundation for the broader Indian national movement.

Campaign for General Administrative Reform

• The Moderate Nationalists campaigned for general administrative reform in India, advocating for various changes and improvements. Here are the key grounds on which they campaigned:
• Indianisation of Government Service: The Moderates argued for the inclusion of Indians in government services. They highlighted the economic benefits of employing Indians, as British civil servants received high salaries and remitted a significant portion of their earnings out of India, leading to an economic drain on national resources. They also emphasized the political and moral aspects, arguing that excluding Indians from positions of power was discriminatory and unjust.
• Separation of Judicial and Executive Powers: The Moderates criticized the existing system where the judicial and executive powers were not clearly separated. They advocated for the separation of these powers to ensure a more efficient and impartial administration of justice.
• Criticism of Bureaucracy and Judicial System: The Moderates voiced concerns about the oppressive and tyrannical nature of the bureaucracy. They highlighted the bureaucratic inefficiencies and the time-consuming judicial system, calling for reforms to make these systems more responsive, transparent, and accessible.
• Opposition to Aggressive Foreign Policy: The Moderates criticized the aggressive foreign policy of the British government, which resulted in actions such as the annexation of Burma, the invasion of Afghanistan, and the suppression of tribals in the North West. They argued for a more restrained and just approach to dealing with foreign affairs.
• Increased Spending on Welfare and Development: The Moderates advocated for increased government spending on welfare measures such as health and sanitation, education (particularly elementary and technical education), irrigation works, agricultural improvements, and the establishment of agricultural banks for cultivators. They emphasized the need to prioritize social and economic development to improve the conditions of the Indian population.
• Protection of Indian Laborers in British Colonies: The Moderates raised concerns about the mistreatment and racial discrimination faced by Indian labourers in other British colonies. They called for better treatment and protection of the rights of Indian labourers, highlighting the need for fair and just treatment regardless of their location.
• Through their campaign for general administrative reform, the Moderate Nationalists aimed to address systemic issues, improve governance, and protect the interests and well-being of the Indian population.

Protection of Civil Rights

• The Moderate Nationalists actively advocated for the protection of civil rights in their fight for freedom and independence. They recognized the importance of fundamental rights such as freedom of expression, thought, association, and the press. Here are some key points related to their efforts:
• Spread of Democratic Ideas: The Moderate Nationalists embarked on a continuous campaign to promote modern democratic ideals among the Indian population. They aimed to raise awareness and consciousness about civil rights and the principles of democracy.
• Integration of Civil Rights in the Freedom Struggle: As the national movement progressed, the defence of civil rights became an integral part of the struggle for freedom. The Moderate Nationalists understood that the preservation of civil liberties was crucial in challenging colonial oppression and establishing a just and democratic society.
• Outrage over Arrests and Deportation: The arrest of prominent leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and several journalists in 1897, as well as the arrest and deportation of the Natu brothers without a trial, sparked widespread public outrage. These incidents highlighted the violation of civil rights by the colonial authorities and further fueled the demand for their protection.
• The Moderate Nationalists fought to safeguard civil rights as they recognized their significance in ensuring individual freedoms, promoting democratic values, and challenging oppressive colonial policies.

Achievements of the Moderates

• The Moderate Nationalists made significant achievements in their pursuit of constitutional reforms and political representation. Here are the key accomplishments of the Moderates:
• Indian Councils Act of 1892: The Moderates’ demands for constitutional reform were partially met through the Indian Councils Act of 1892. This act increased the number of members in the Imperial Legislative Councils and Provincial Legislative Councils, allowing for greater Indian representation.
• Expansion of Legislative Councils: The act granted additional responsibilities to the Legislative Councils, such as the ability to engage in budget debates and question the executive. This expansion of their role gave Indian representatives a platform to voice their concerns and participate in the decision-making process.
• Implementation of Indirect Elections: The Indian Councils Act introduced indirect elections (nominations) in both the central and provincial legislative councils. While not fully elected, these nominations allowed for some Indian representation in the councils.
• Demand for Greater Representation and Budget Control: The Moderates, during Congress sessions, criticized the limited scope of the reforms. They demanded a majority of elected Indians in the councils and sought control over the budget. They argued that elected representatives should have the ability to vote on and amend the budget, emphasizing the principle of “No taxation without representation.”
• The achievements of the Moderates in securing constitutional reforms and expanding representation laid the foundation for further advancements in the Indian national movement. While they faced limitations and continued to advocate for more substantial changes, their efforts marked an important step forward in the struggle for political rights and self-governance.

Limitations of the Moderates

• The Moderate Nationalists had certain limitations in their approach and goals within the national movement. Here are some key limitations:
• Limited Mass Involvement: The Moderate Nationalists were predominantly composed of educated elites, such as lawyers, teachers, and government officials. They did not actively seek or prioritize the involvement of the masses in their movement. Unlike leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, who emphasized mass participation and mobilization, the Moderates relied more on intellectual and bureaucratic approaches.
• Distanced from the Masses: The Moderates’ attachment to Western political thought and their emphasis on constitutional methods sometimes created a disconnect between them and the broader population. Their intellectual and elite background made it challenging for them to fully connect with and understand the aspirations and struggles of the common people.
• Limited Goal of Autonomy: Unlike more radical and revolutionary factions within the national movement, the Moderates did not aim for complete independence from British rule. They were content with achieving dominion status, which would grant increased autonomy and self-rule while still being within the British Empire. This more moderate stance may have limited their ability to rally broader support for complete independence.
• It is important to note that these limitations should be understood in the context of the specific time and circumstances in which the Moderate Phase operated. While they had their constraints, the Moderates played a significant role in laying the foundation for the subsequent stages of the Indian national movement.

Evaluation of Early Nationalist

• The evaluation of the Early Nationalists, also known as the Moderates, can be seen in the following light:
• Progressive Forces: The Early Nationalists represented the most progressive forces in India during their time. They advocated for constitutional reforms, civil rights, and economic independence from British imperialism. Their ideas and actions were instrumental in shaping the early stages of the national movement.
• National Awakening: The Moderates played a significant role in creating a widespread national awakening among Indians. They emphasized the need for unity and a sense of belonging to one nation, uniting people across regions, religions, and castes in the common struggle against colonial rule.
• Political Education and Modern Ideas: The Moderates actively worked to educate people about politics and popularize modern ideas. They played a crucial role in raising political consciousness and spreading awareness among the masses.
• Exposing Exploitative Colonial Rule: The Moderates effectively exposed the exploitative nature of colonial rule in India. They highlighted the economic drain and social injustices caused by British policies, undermining the moral foundations of colonialism.
• Realistic and Grounded Approach: The political work of the Moderates was based on hard realities rather than shallow sentiments or religious factors. They focused on practical reforms and gradual progress within the existing system, aiming to govern India in the interests of Indians.
• Foundation for a Mass-Based Movement: The Moderates laid the groundwork for a more vigorous and mass-based national movement that would follow in the years ahead. Their efforts provided a foundation for future leaders and organizations to mobilize the masses and broaden the struggle for independence.
• Limitations in Broadening the Base: One of the criticisms of the Moderates is their limited ability to broaden their democratic base and expand the scope of their demands. They primarily represented the educated elite and did not actively engage or involve the larger masses in the movement.
• In conclusion, the Early Nationalists, or Moderates, played a crucial role in the Indian national movement. They brought progressive ideas, created national awakenings, exposed colonial exploitation, and laid the groundwork for future mass-based movements. However, their limitations in broadening their base and expanding demands are also acknowledged.

Conclusion

• In conclusion, the Moderate Phase of the Indian national movement, led by the Early Nationalists, made significant contributions to the struggle for independence. They believed in peaceful and constitutional methods, seeking to transform colonial rule into a form of national rule that would be in India’s best interests. However, their approach was limited by their reliance on the educated elite and their hesitation to challenge British rule directly.
• While the Moderates were not able to achieve widespread mass participation and lacked radical political positions, their efforts were instrumental in creating a sense of Indian nationalism and raising awareness about the exploitative nature of the colonial rule. They fought for the interests of the emerging Indian nation and laid the foundation for future nationalists who would adopt more militant and mass-based approaches in the struggle against colonialism.
• The Moderates played a significant role in shaping the early stages of the national movement, and their contributions should be recognized in the broader context of India’s journey towards independence.

• Before the Indian National Congress (INC) came into existence, there were different political groups present. The INC was not the initial political organization in India. However, during the early 19th century, most political associations were primarily controlled by affluent and aristocratic individuals. These associations had a more localized or regional focus. As time progressed into the latter half of the 19th century, political organizations saw a shift in dominance towards the educated middle class, including professionals like lawyers, journalists, doctors, teachers, etc. These individuals possessed a wider outlook and pursued more comprehensive goals.

The objectives of political associations before the establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) were as follows:

• Promoting Education: They advocated for the expansion of education among the general population, emphasizing the importance of education for social progress and empowerment.
• Enhancing Indian Representation: They aimed to increase the presence and participation of Indians in the executive and legislative councils, seeking a more inclusive and representative governance structure.
• Opposing Discrimination: These associations actively opposed the discriminatory policies and actions implemented by the British administration that adversely affected Indians, striving for equality and justice.
• Administrative Reforms: They sought to bring about reforms in the administrative system to make it more responsive, transparent, and accountable to the needs and aspirations of the Indian population.
• Press Freedom: Ensuring the freedom of the press was another objective, advocating for the right to express opinions and disseminate information without censorship or undue restrictions.
• These objectives reflected the aspirations and concerns of the pre-INC political associations, laying the foundation for the larger movement towards independence and self-governance in India.

Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha

• The Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha was established in 1836 by the associates of Raja Rammohan Roy. It emerged before the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC). The primary objectives of this organization were to advocate for administrative reforms, promote the participation of Indians in the administration, and spread education. Additionally, the Sabha played a significant role in awakening a sense of collective will and fostering a path toward modern nationalism among the general population.

Zamindari Association (Bengal Landholders Society)

• The Zamindari Association also referred to as the ‘Landholders’ Society,’ was established in 1838 to protect the interests of landlords. Its founders included Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Dwarkanath Tagore, and Radhakant Deb, who formed the organization in 1836. Although the Landholders’ Society had a specific focus, it marked the beginning of organized political engagement and the utilization of constitutional methods to address grievances.
• The association primarily sought to safeguard the interests of landlords and pursued its objectives through constitutional means. It employed tactics such as lengthy petitions to the British Parliament, advocating for administrative reforms, greater Indian participation in the administration, and the promotion of education, among other demands.
• These political organizations played a crucial role in advancing their causes by utilizing constitutional agitation methods and engaging with the British authorities through petitions and appeals.

Bengal British India Society

• The Bengal British India Society was established in 1843 in England by William Adam, who was a close associate of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Its primary goal was to raise awareness about the dire conditions in which the British were subjecting the Indian population, to improve their circumstances. The society employed constitutional and legal methods to pursue its objectives.

British India Association

• The British India Association came into existence in 1851 through the merger of the Bengal Landholders Society and the British India Society. Its main function was to present petitions that addressed the concerns and grievances of the general public. For example, they submitted a petition to the British Parliament, offering suggestions for the new Charter Law of the company. As a result, one of their suggestions was incorporated into the Charter Act of 1853, leading to the expansion of the Governor General’s Council for Legislative purposes by adding six new members.
• However, due to the lack of a comprehensive political strategy, the British India Association was unable to operate on a nationwide scale.

East India Association

• The East India Association was founded by Dadabhai Nawrojee in London in 1867. Its primary objective was to raise awareness among the British public about the prevailing conditions in India and to garner support for the welfare of the Indian people. It is also recognized as the precursor to the Indian National Congress, which played a crucial role in India’s independence movement.
• One significant aspect of the East India Association was its challenge to the notion of Asians being inferior to Europeans, particularly in response to the Ethnological Society of London’s beliefs in 1866. The association aimed to refute these discriminatory ideas and promote equality.
• By 1869, the East India Association had established its presence in major Indian cities such as Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta, indicating its growing influence and outreach.

Indian League

• The Indian League was established in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh to foster a spirit of nationalism and promote political education among the Indian population. The organization attracted prominent nationalist leaders, including Ananda Mohan Bose, Durgamohan Das, Nabagopal Mitra, and Surendranath Banerjee, among others. These leaders played significant roles in advocating for Indian independence and shaping the nationalist movement in India.

Indian National Association (Indian Association of Calcutta)

• The Indian National Association, also known as the Indian Association of Calcutta, was founded in 1876 by prominent Bengali nationalists like Anand Mohan Bose and Surendranath Banerjee. The organization emerged as a response to the British India Association’s conservative and pro-landlord policies, which caused discontent among the younger generation of Bengali nationalists.
• The Indian National Association had several objectives, including advocating for reforms in civil services examinations and mobilizing public opinion on significant national political issues. The association’s presence in various Indian cities allowed it to expand its membership and connect with a wider audience.
• Eventually, the Indian National Association merged with the Indian National Congress, which became the leading political organization in the struggle for India’s independence. The merger helped consolidate the nationalist movement and strengthen its efforts to achieve self-rule for India.

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha

• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in 1870 by notable figures such as M.G. Ranade, G.V. Joshi, S.H. Chiplankar, and their associates. This sociopolitical organization played a crucial role in British India, serving as a mediator between the government and the Indian people. One of the primary objectives of the Sabha was to raise awareness and promote the legal rights of peasants.
• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha aimed to bridge the gap between the authorities and the common people, advocating for the rights of the agricultural community and working to popularize their legal entitlements. By acting as a mediating body, the Sabha sought to foster a better understanding between the government and the Indian population while championing the cause of the peasants.

Bombay Presidency Association

• The Bombay Presidency Association was founded in 1885 by Pherozshah Mehta, K.T. Telang, and Badruddin Tyabji. The establishment of this association was a response to the reactionary policies of Lord Lytton, the then Viceroy of India, and the controversy surrounding the Ilbert Bill.
• The Bombay Presidency, also referred to as Bombay and Sind from 1843 to 1936, was an administrative region within British India. It encompassed the area with its capital in Bombay (now Mumbai), which was the first mainland territory acquired in the Konkan region through the Treaty of Bassein in 1802.

Madras Mahajan Sabha

• The Madras Mahajan Sabha was a prominent Indian nationalist organization based in the Madras Presidency. It is considered one of the precursors to the Indian National Congress, alongside other organizations such as the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, and the Indian Association.
• In May 1884, the Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded by influential individuals such as M. Veeraraghavachariar, G. Subramania Iyer, and P. Ananda Charlu. The Sabha played a vital role in promoting nationalist ideals and advocating for the interests and rights of the Indian people in the Madras Presidency region. Its formation and activities contributed to the eventual emergence of the Indian National Congress as a unified national platform for the Indian independence movement.

Bombay Association (Bombay Native Association)

• The Bombay Association, also known as the Bombay Native Association, was initiated in 1852 by notable individuals including Jaggannath Shankersheth, Sir Jamshedji Jejibhai, Jagannath Shankarshet, Naoroji Fursungi, Dr Bhau Daji Lad, Dadabhai Naoroji, and Vinayak Shankarshet. This association is recognized as the first political party or organization in the Bombay Province.
• The primary objective of the Bombay Association was to address public grievances by employing legal and agitational means. The organization sought to represent the interests and concerns of the local population, advocating for their rights and working towards the improvement of their social, economic, and political conditions within the Bombay Province.

Madras Native Association

• The Madras Native Association was established by Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty in 1849 within the Madras Presidency. This organization holds the distinction of being the first political organization in Madras.
• The Madras Native Association played a significant role in voicing the concerns and interests of the local population in the Madras Presidency. It aimed to promote the rights and welfare of the native people and actively engaged in political activities to address their grievances. By providing a platform for political mobilization, the association laid the groundwork for subsequent political organizations and movements in the region.

Limitations of Political Association Before INC

• Before the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC), the political associations of the time played a crucial role in generating nationalism and addressing the political aspirations of the Indian public. However, these associations had certain limitations:
• Local Focus: The activities of these associations were primarily centred around resolving local issues and concerns. Their scope and impact were limited to specific regions or provinces.
• Regional Leadership: The members and leaders of these associations were generally limited to individuals from one or adjoining provinces. This regional focus restricted their ability to represent a diverse range of interests and perspectives from across the entire subcontinent.
• Lack of National Unity: The absence of a unified national platform meant that these political associations operated independently and did not have a coordinated effort or shared vision for the entire country. The absence of a cohesive national front limited their collective strength and impact.
• The emergence of National Unity: The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 marked a significant turning point as it brought together leaders from different regions and communities, providing a platform for national unity and a coordinated effort towards common political goals.
• The Indian National Congress played a pivotal role in establishing a nationwide movement for independence and became a unifying force for the diverse aspirations of the Indian people.