Geography, as a discipline, is rooted in a rich philosophical tradition that intersects with diverse branches of human knowledge. It is a science that systematically studies the spatial dimensions of the Earth’s surface, examining the relationships between physical environments, human societies, and the spatial structures they create. The philosophical underpinnings of geography have evolved significantly, informed by developments in epistemology, ontology, and methodological debates across centuries.

Ancient Foundations

The philosophical origins of geography trace back to ancient civilizations, where it was closely tied to astronomy, cartography, and exploration:

• Greek Contributions: Early Greek philosophers, including Thales, Anaximander, and Herodotus, sought to understand the spatial organization of the Earth. Anaximander, for instance, is credited with creating one of the earliest maps of the known world and theorizing about the Earth’s geometric structure.
  • Eratosthenes coined the term “geography” in the 3rd century BCE, combining “geo” (Earth) and “graphia” (writing or description). His work emphasized empirical observation and mathematical measurement, laying the groundwork for later geospatial analysis.
• Roman Era: Roman thinkers like Strabo in his work Geographica integrated geographic knowledge with historical narratives, focusing on the interrelation of regions and cultures.

Medieval and Islamic Contributions

During the medieval period, the decline of classical scientific traditions in Europe was counterbalanced by advances in the Islamic world. Scholars like Al-Idrisi, Ibn Khaldun, and Al-Biruni made significant contributions:

• Al-Idrisi’s Tabula Rogeriana reflected a detailed synthesis of geographic knowledge.
• Ibn Khaldun introduced human geography, analyzing how environments influenced the rise and fall of civilizations.

The medieval European perspective was dominated by religious cosmology, with geography often serving theological narratives, exemplified by T-O maps (showing the world as a circular depiction centered on Jerusalem).

The Age of Enlightenment

The philosophical framework of geography underwent a transformation during the Enlightenment. As the scientific revolution fostered an empirical and rational approach, geography began to evolve into a formal discipline:

• Immanuel Kant emphasized the importance of spatial relationships in organizing knowledge. He classified geography as an integrative science essential to understanding the physical and social worlds.
• Alexander von Humboldt introduced holistic approaches to geography, emphasizing the interconnectedness of physical and human systems. His seminal work Cosmos integrated physical geography, ecology, and biogeography.
• Carl Ritter, often associated with Humboldt, argued for teleological explanations in geography, focusing on the interdependence of natural phenomena and human activity.

Modern Philosophical Debates

With the institutionalization of geography in the 19th and 20th centuries, the discipline saw significant epistemological and methodological debates:

• Positivism: In the early 20th century, geography adopted a positivist approach, emphasizing the scientific method, quantitative analysis, and spatial models. Figures like William Morris Davis advanced systematic theories, such as the cycle of erosion in geomorphology.
• Humanism: By the mid-20th century, critiques of positivism led to the rise of humanistic geography, which emphasized subjectivity, place, and meaning. Scholars like Yi-Fu Tuan explored the emotional and symbolic dimensions of place.
• Marxist Geography: Influenced by Karl Marx’s ideas, scholars like David Harvey examined the role of capitalism and power structures in shaping spatial dynamics, emphasizing the importance of economic and social justice.
• Postmodernism: In the late 20th century, postmodern geography emerged, challenging grand narratives and advocating for pluralistic approaches. Postmodernists argued for recognizing the fluidity of spaces and the constructed nature of geographic knowledge.

Key Philosophical Themes

1. Space and Place: Central to geographic inquiry is the distinction between space (abstract, quantitative dimensions) and place (lived, qualitative experience). This dichotomy underpins much of the philosophical discourse.
2. Environmental Determinism vs. Possibilism: The debate over whether human activity is primarily shaped by environmental constraints (determinism) or human agency (possibilism) has been a persistent theme.
3. Scale and Relational Thinking: Geography emphasizes the importance of scale, examining phenomena from local to global perspectives, and their interconnectivity.
4. Systems Thinking: Modern geography often employs systems theory to understand the dynamic interactions between natural and human systems.

Philosophical Shifts in the 21st Century

The 21st century has brought new philosophical challenges and opportunities for geography:

• Critical Geographies: Emphasizing the role of power, inequality, and identity, critical geography interrogates how space and place are politically and socially constructed.
• Feminist Geography: Focused on gendered spaces and the intersectionality of oppression, feminist geographers highlight the lived experiences of marginalized communities.
• Geospatial Technologies and Big Data: The rise of GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and remote sensing has transformed the discipline, raising philosophical questions about the ethics of surveillance, data privacy, and the digital divide.
• Sustainability and Anthropocene: Contemporary geography addresses urgent global challenges, such as climate change, resource depletion, and urbanization, within the context of the Anthropocene epoch.

Conclusion

The philosophical background of geography reflects its dual nature as both a physical and social science. It has evolved from ancient descriptive traditions to a sophisticated interdisciplinary field that integrates quantitative, qualitative, and critical perspectives. By addressing fundamental questions about space, place, and human-environment interaction, geography continues to shape our understanding of the world and its complex systems. Its enduring relevance lies in its ability to adapt its philosophical frameworks to the changing needs and challenges of humanity.

Geography, as a scientific discipline, stands out for its inherent inter-disciplinary nature, combining diverse fields to explore the Earth and its systems comprehensively. Rooted in the study of spatial patterns and processes, geography bridges the natural and social sciences, offering a unique lens to understand the complexities of human-environment interactions. This integration is essential because no single discipline can fully address the multifaceted challenges of understanding the planet’s dynamic systems and their influence on human life.

The dual focus of geography on physical processes and human systems exemplifies its inter-disciplinary approach. On the one hand, physical geography investigates natural systems and processes, while human geography focuses on societal structures and cultural patterns. However, these branches are not isolated but interconnected, emphasizing the holistic integration of knowledge across diverse disciplines.

Geography and the Natural Sciences

Physical geography, a core subfield of geography, intersects deeply with the natural sciences, focusing on the Earth’s physical features and processes. It encompasses topics such as climatology, geomorphology, biogeography, and hydrology. Each of these areas incorporates knowledge and methodologies from other scientific disciplines.

For example, climatology depends on principles from meteorology and atmospheric science to study global and regional climate patterns. Modern climate models integrate data from physics and computer science to predict future climate scenarios. Similarly, geomorphology, which examines landforms and their development, utilizes insights from geology to understand tectonic activity and erosion processes. The study of glacial movements, an essential aspect of geomorphology, incorporates cryospheric science, an emerging discipline focused on frozen water systems.

Hydrology, another critical domain, explores the distribution and movement of water across the Earth. It integrates chemistry, engineering, and environmental science to study issues such as groundwater contamination, flood management, and sustainable water resource use. Physical geography’s reliance on the natural sciences underscores its inter-disciplinary essence, enabling geographers to analyze the Earth’s physical systems comprehensively.

Geography and the Social Sciences

Human geography, the study of human societies and their spatial relationships, inherently depends on the social sciences. It examines cultural, economic, and political systems and their interaction with the environment. This branch of geography engages with disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science.

Cultural geography, for instance, investigates the spatial distribution of cultures, languages, and religions. It draws heavily on anthropology to explore the cultural practices and historical migrations of human groups. The concept of cultural landscapes, popularized by Carl Sauer, reflects this integration by emphasizing the role of human activity in shaping geographic spaces.

Economic geography examines spatial economic activities, including trade, industry, and globalization. It utilizes principles from economics to analyze issues such as regional development and resource allocation. The study of urban systems within economic geography often incorporates urban sociology and planning theories.

Political geography, focusing on spatial dimensions of political processes, engages deeply with political science and international relations. Topics such as territorial disputes, geopolitics, and the role of boundaries illustrate the inter-disciplinary nature of human geography. The geopolitics of the Arctic region, for example, requires an understanding of political treaties, economic interests, and environmental change.

Geography and Environmental Science

The interaction between humans and the environment is a central theme in geography, linking physical and human geography through the lens of environmental science. This field addresses critical global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainable development. Geographic research often utilizes systems theory to analyze the interconnections between natural and human systems.

For instance, studies of climate change rely on data from atmospheric science, oceanography, and human behavior to assess its causes and impacts. Geographers play a crucial role in mapping vulnerable areas and proposing adaptation strategies. The study of deforestation integrates satellite imagery (remote sensing), ecological theories, and socio-economic analyses to understand its spatial patterns and implications.

Geographic techniques such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) are indispensable tools in environmental science. These technologies enable geographers to analyze spatial data, model environmental processes, and inform policy decisions. The use of GIS to map disaster-prone areas highlights the inter-disciplinary application of geographic knowledge in disaster management and resilience planning.

Geography and Technological Integration

Modern geography is profoundly influenced by advances in technology, further underscoring its inter-disciplinary character. Remote sensing, involving the collection of data from satellites, integrates principles from physics and engineering. Geographic information systems (GIS) combine cartographic principles with computer science to analyze spatial data effectively.

For example, GIS is widely used in urban planning to model transportation networks and land-use patterns. This involves integrating economic theories, sociological insights, and environmental assessments to create sustainable urban environments. In agriculture, precision farming uses GIS and remote sensing to optimize crop yields, requiring inputs from biology, meteorology, and engineering.

Geography and Health Sciences

The relationship between geography and public health illustrates the inter-disciplinary application of geographic knowledge. Medical geography, a subfield of human geography, studies the spatial distribution of diseases and healthcare systems. It incorporates epidemiological methods, biostatistics, and sociocultural analyses.

For example, mapping the spread of infectious diseases like COVID-19 involves integrating demographic data, virological studies, and socio-economic factors. Geographers collaborate with epidemiologists to model disease transmission and identify hotspots for targeted interventions. The role of geography in addressing health inequities further demonstrates its relevance to social justice and policy-making.

Geography and the Humanities

Geography also engages with the humanities, exploring the symbolic and cultural dimensions of space and place. Historical geography examines the evolution of landscapes over time, drawing on history and archaeology. Literary geography analyzes the representation of landscapes in literature, offering insights into cultural perceptions of space.

For example, the study of colonial landscapes involves integrating historical records, archaeological evidence, and spatial analyses to understand the socio-economic impacts of colonialism. Similarly, the concept of sense of place, a central theme in humanistic geography, draws from philosophy and cultural studies to explore emotional and symbolic attachments to specific locations.

Conclusion

Geography’s inter-disciplinary nature is its defining strength, enabling a comprehensive understanding of the Earth’s systems and human-environment interactions. By bridging the natural and social sciences, geography addresses complex global challenges such as climate change, urbanization, and resource management. The integration of advanced technologies like GIS and remote sensing further enhances its analytical capabilities, solidifying its role as a crucial discipline in the modern scientific landscape.

Through its emphasis on spatial analysis, systems thinking, and interdisciplinary collaboration, geography continues to provide valuable insights into the pressing issues of our time. Its ability to synthesize knowledge from diverse fields ensures that it remains at the forefront of addressing the challenges and opportunities of an interconnected world.

Geography, as a discipline, bridges the natural sciences and the social sciences, providing a unique perspective on human-environment interactions. While its origins were heavily rooted in physical processes and exploration, geography has evolved to encompass the study of human societies, their spatial organization, and their relationship with the environment. This dual nature has positioned geography as a social science, emphasizing the spatial dimensions of human activities and societal structures. However, its status as a social science has been a subject of debate, owing to its interdisciplinary character and reliance on methodologies from both natural sciences and the humanities.

Geography as a social science focuses on understanding the spatial patterns of human behavior, the organization of societies, and the interactions between humans and their environments. It draws from disciplines such as sociology, economics, political science, and anthropology, while retaining its core emphasis on space, place, and scale.

Theoretical Foundations of Social Geography

Geography’s status as a social science is rooted in its theoretical frameworks that analyze human societies in spatial terms. One of the earliest contributions to social geography came from human ecology, which studied the spatial organization of populations and their interactions with the environment. Pioneered by geographers such as Harlan Barrows, this approach emphasized the role of geographic conditions in shaping human activities.

The development of regional geography in the early 20th century marked a shift toward studying the unique characteristics of regions as integrated wholes. Scholars like Paul Vidal de la Blache emphasized the concept of genre de vie, or the way of life of communities, shaped by their geographic context. This approach laid the foundation for understanding the interplay between cultural practices and physical environments, a hallmark of geography as a social science.

In the mid-20th century, geography underwent a quantitative revolution, introducing statistical methods and spatial analysis into social science research. This period emphasized positivist approaches, focusing on objective, measurable patterns of human behavior. Theories such as central place theory by Walter Christaller and location theory by Alfred Weber exemplified this trend, providing models to explain the spatial organization of economic activities and urban systems.

Subsequently, geography embraced critical social theories, incorporating perspectives from Marxism, feminism, and postmodernism. These approaches challenged the positivist paradigm, emphasizing the role of power, inequality, and social justice in shaping spatial patterns. David Harvey’s work on urbanization and capitalism, for example, highlighted the spatial dimensions of economic inequality and the production of space under capitalist systems. Similarly, feminist geographers like Doreen Massey critiqued the patriarchal structures embedded in geographic spaces, advocating for a more inclusive understanding of social dynamics.

Geography and Human-Environment Interaction

A central theme in geography as a social science is the study of human-environment interactions. This focus distinguishes geography from other social sciences and underscores its interdisciplinary nature. The concept of cultural landscapes, introduced by Carl Sauer, is a key contribution to this field. Sauer argued that human activities shape and are shaped by their environments, creating landscapes that reflect cultural, social, and economic processes.

Modern geography continues to explore these interactions through frameworks such as political ecology and environmental justice. Political ecology examines the social and political factors influencing environmental change, highlighting issues such as resource exploitation, land tenure, and environmental degradation. For instance, studies on deforestation in the Amazon often combine economic analyses with ethnographic research to understand the roles of global trade, indigenous practices, and governmental policies.

Environmental justice, on the other hand, focuses on the unequal distribution of environmental risks and benefits across different social groups. Geographic research in this area has revealed patterns of environmental racism, where marginalized communities disproportionately bear the burden of pollution and hazardous waste. These studies demonstrate geography’s ability to integrate social science perspectives with environmental concerns, addressing pressing global challenges.

Methodological Approaches in Social Geography

Geography as a social science employs a wide range of qualitative and quantitative methodologies, reflecting its interdisciplinary character. Quantitative methods, such as spatial statistics, geospatial analysis, and modeling, are widely used to study patterns of urbanization, migration, and economic development. For example, geographic information systems (GIS) are employed to analyze the spatial distribution of income inequality, access to healthcare, or crime rates.

Qualitative methods, including interviews, ethnography, and participatory mapping, are equally significant in social geography. These approaches provide insights into the lived experiences of individuals and communities, emphasizing the subjective and cultural dimensions of space. Participatory mapping, for instance, is used in indigenous communities to document traditional land-use practices and assert territorial rights.

Critical approaches in geography often combine these methods, integrating empirical data with theoretical analysis. For example, studies on gentrification may use quantitative data to map changes in housing prices and demographic composition, alongside qualitative interviews to capture the experiences of displaced residents. This combination of methods exemplifies geography’s ability to address complex social phenomena comprehensively.

Contributions to Social Science Discourses

Geography’s contributions to social science discourses are manifold, addressing themes such as urbanization, globalization, and social inequality. Urban geography, for instance, explores the spatial organization of cities, the dynamics of urban growth, and the socio-economic challenges of urban life. Research on megacities highlights the pressures of rapid urbanization, including housing shortages, traffic congestion, and environmental degradation. Geographic studies in this field inform urban planning and policy-making, offering solutions for sustainable urban development.

Globalization, another key area of geographic research, examines the spatial dimensions of economic, cultural, and political processes. Geographers study the flows of goods, people, and information across borders, analyzing their impacts on local economies and cultures. The concept of time-space compression, introduced by David Harvey, encapsulates the changing geographies of globalization, where technological advancements have reduced the friction of distance, reshaping global connectivity.

Social geography also addresses issues of inequality and exclusion, exploring how spatial processes reproduce social hierarchies. Research on segregation, for example, reveals how spatial patterns of housing and education reinforce racial and economic disparities. Similarly, studies on gendered spaces highlight the ways in which societal norms and power structures influence the accessibility and use of public spaces.

Critiques of Geography as a Social Science

While geography’s interdisciplinary nature is a strength, it has also led to critiques of its status as a social science. Some scholars argue that geography lacks a unified theoretical framework, relying instead on borrowing concepts and methods from other disciplines. This perceived fragmentation has raised questions about the coherence and distinctiveness of geography as a social science.

Additionally, the emphasis on spatial analysis and quantitative methods during the quantitative revolution has been critiqued for prioritizing abstraction and generalization over contextual and localized understandings. Critics from the humanistic and critical geography traditions have called for a more nuanced approach that values subjective experiences and power dynamics in explaining social phenomena.

The balance between geography’s natural science and social science components also presents challenges. Some argue that the integration of physical and human geography has been uneven, with limited cross-disciplinary collaboration. Addressing these critiques requires continued efforts to bridge disciplinary boundaries and develop innovative frameworks that integrate diverse perspectives.

Conclusion

Geography as a social science offers a powerful lens for understanding the spatial dimensions of human societies and their interactions with the environment. Its interdisciplinary nature, theoretical diversity, and methodological richness enable geographers to address complex social phenomena, from urbanization and globalization to inequality and environmental justice. However, the discipline faces challenges in maintaining its coherence and balancing its natural and social science components. By embracing its integrative potential and addressing these critiques, geography can continue to contribute valuable insights to the social sciences and beyond. Its emphasis on space, place, and scale ensures that geography remains a vital field for analyzing the interconnected challenges of the modern world.

It has often been alleged that geography does not have its own area of study.

It does not have its laws and thus encroaches upon the sphere of other disciplines. Some geographers argue that the subject matter of geography is largely shared with other disciplines. Some others are of the opinion that while the subject matter of geography is exclusive, geographers alone study places. There is, however, a consensus on the definition given by Ackerman. Ackerman asserted that the fundamental approach in geography “is the differentiation of the content of space on the earth’s surface and the analysis of space within the same universe”.

In order to overcome the controversy of the subject matter of geography, Fenneman in 1919, prepared a model showing the circumference of geography. Fenneman’s model has been shown in Figure 10.2.

It may be noted from Figure 10.2 that sciences overlap and that each one of the overlapping zones, which also represent specialized, systematic branch of geography, belongs equally to some other science. For example, the geologists deal with rocks, the botanists with plants, the meteorologists with climates, the demographers with population conditions, and the economists with economic conditions.

Such studies, unfortunately, fail to consider the overall interaction between phenomena. It is geography which deals with an overall interaction of the biotic and abiotic phenomena in time and space with an anthropocentric approach. The sphere where atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere converge is the region where geographers study the man-nature relationship. Thus, geography has its own area of study which may appear to be in the nature of an encroachment upon other disciplines. It is because of this peculiarity that geography is regarded as a science of synthesis. The geographers attempt a synthesis of the physical and human phenomena within an area or region. The models and laws formulated in general geography are tested by them in the regional studies.

The concept of geography as a science of regional synthesis is not very old. The British and American geographers did rigorous exercises to define the objectives, scope and nature of geography. Before the advent of ‘quantitative revolution’ geography used to be considered as “short a theory and long a fact”. Notwithstanding this definition, formulation of theory in geography is essential. In the words of Burton, theory “provides the sieve through which myriads of facts are sorted, and without it the facts remain a meaningless jumble”.

Introduction

After the World War II, many more developments took place in the geographical studies. Up to the end of 19th century, the geographical issues were descriptive basically analyzed by the sensual organs. The introduction of quantitative revolution changes the descriptive character of the subject and makes it a scientific discipline. There is a paradigm shift from ‘ideographic’ to ‘nomothetic’ in order to maintain the discipline to the level of logical and rational pursuit of understanding. The most of the Anglo-American realm, who was trained in mathematics and statistics and some them who shifted to geography, from the natural sciences, geography appeared to be a true science- a law-seeking discipline rather than an ideographic science. Much fundamental research in geography has not been concerned with a high level of generalization, and it has given meaning to other research efforts which succeeded. Accurate study depends on quantification and should furnish a theoretical framework with the capacity to illuminate actually observed distribution pattern and space relations.

The positivist-led geography then called for the development of theory, for the application of quantitative methods, and for a focus on laws and generalizations to form the building block for further nomothetic research. As‘science’ geography with its positivist character, concerned itself with empirical questions and not with normative questions. Empirical questions are questions about how things are in reality. In this context, the reality is defined as the world which can be sensed. This means that science is concerned with objects in the world. Science can describe how a thing is, and discovers the association of causes which explain why things are as they are.

Contemporary positivist-led geography, therefore, sought to investigate two pertinent questions of geographic character: (i) theoretical questions that deal with the formulation of empirical generalisations, explanations or laws, perhaps even with basic theory and (ii) methodological questions that have to do with experiments in new methods of study, new techniques of observation and analysis, or new cartographic methods.

Scientific Method

Science is popularly defined as an accumulation of systematic knowledge. It is a method of approach to the entire empirical world and it does not aim at persuasion. It is nearly a mode of analysis that permits the scientists to state propositions in the form of ‘if -, then -,’The sole purpose of science is to understand the world in which man lives.

The term ‘scientific method’ denotes the logical structure of the process by which the search for trustworthy knowledge advances. The primary task of the scientific method is to explain empirical phenomena. There is no need to argue that geography ought to be a science. Geography simply is a science by virtue of the fact that it is a truth-seeking discipline whose raw materials consist of empirical observations. There is no suggestion that geography should undergo any sort of epistemological restructuring (Marshall, 1985).

Hay (1985) identifies four groups of geographers with regard to the appropriateness or inappropriateness of scientific method in geography. The first group consists of physical geographers, who believed that their discipline is a field of natural science. In the second group are those human geographers, who see scientific methods as being appropriate to their discipline as a social science. The third group consists of those who believe that the geography makes scientific or quasi-scientific methodology inappropriate. Most recently, a fourth group has emerged which seeks to apply Marxist methods in geography and believes that methods are scientific in the mould of classical natural sciences.

In order to understand the above-mentioned views, it is necessary to identify the key elements of scientific thinking and practices. It is also important to outline some of the philosophical problems as well as to examine some additional issues which arise when the scientific method is applied to geography and also other similar disciplines.

Key Elements of Scientific Methods

The scientific method is characterized by five key elements. These five elements are: 

1. Theory and fact 
2. Law 
3. Logic
4. Reduction 
5. Hypotheses

Theory and Fact

Basic to modern science is an intricate relation between theory and fact. The theory is compared with speculation and thus a theory remains speculation until it is proved. When this proof is made, the theory becomes facts. The theory is supposed to be the realm of philosophers. Therefore, a scientific theory is thought to be merely the summation of facts which have been accumulated upon a given discipline.

A fact is regarded as an empirically variable observation. It could never have produced modern science had it not been gathered. It can be said that facts of science are the product of observations that are not random but meaningful. Thus theory and facts are interrelated in many complex ways. The development of science can be considered as a constant interplay between theory and fact.

Role of Theory

• It defines the major orientation of a science. 
• It offers a conceptual scheme and classification of the relevant phenomena. 
• It predicts the facts. 
• It summarizes facts into empirical generalizations and systems of generalizations. 
• It points to gaps in our knowledge. 

Role of Facts

• They help to initiate theories 
• They lead to the reformulation of the existing theory 
• They the rejection of theories which do not fit the facts. 
• They change the focus and orientation of theory 
• They classify and redefine theory.

Law

The second key element of scientific thinking is ‘law’. Any fully developed scientific theory contains, embedded within it, certain statements about the unvarying relationship. These laws may be evident at the level of everyday experience or only at the level of scientific investigation. As with theories, there is a predisposition among scientists to seek laws. The credit to put the relevance of law in geography goes to Schaefer who said that geographer should seek to make law-like statements. To explain the phenomena, one has to describe the means to recognize them as instances of laws. Hence, geography has to be conceived as the science concerned with the formulation of the laws governing the spatial distribution of certain features on the surface of the earth (Schaefer, 1953).

A law should be unrestricted in its application over space and time. It is thus a ‘universal statement of unrestricted range’. Law should not make specific reference to proper names. A major criterion in determining whether a statement is or is not a law is the relationship of the statement to the system of statements that constitutes a theory. If this criterion is accepted, then the ideas are required to be adjusted regarding the verification procedures necessary to transform a scientific hypothesis to a scientific law. The truth of an empirical law has to be established by the scientific method too, but in addition, it requires support from other empirical laws, theoretical laws and also from other lower level empirical laws that help it to predict.

Golledge and Amedeo (1968) indicated four types of laws which have relevance for human geographers: 

1. Cross-sectional Laws: It describes the functional relationship, but shows no causal connection. 
2. Equilibrium Laws: It states what will be observed if certain criteria are met. 
3. Dynamic Laws: It incorporates notion of change, with the alteration in one variable being followed by an alteration in another. 
4. Statistical Laws: It is related to probability statements.

According to Sack, geography is concerned to explain events and it requires substantive laws: such laws may contain geometric terms. But these terms are insufficient to explain the man environmental relationship. He identified two types of laws relevant to geographical work: (i) Congruent Substance Laws and (ii) Overlapping Substance Laws.

The positivist-led geography has a wider application of laws for successful and fruitful analysis of geographical phenomena together with spatial pattern. The concept of law has a much wider significance in such geography which is being conceived of as a science with law-seeking episteme because it postulates three fold hierarchies of scientific statements.

Logic

Logical validation is one of the most commonly used methods of validation and certainly one of the most difficult to apply. It refers to either theoretical or common-sense analysis which concludes that the item being what they are; the nature of the continuum cannot be other than stated to be. Logical validation or face validity as it is sometimes called is always used because it automatically springs from the careful definition of the continuum and the selection of the item. Scientists have tended to use mathematics (algebra and geometry) as the language for expressing and developing logic, but the mathematical language is not acceptable language for explanations of items.

Reductionism

It is one the most important key of the scientific method. Reductionism is usually taken to apply to any doctrine that seeks to explain a higher order phenomenon in terms of a lower order phenomenon. Such doctrine can be held in different forms and applied in many different areas of intellectual endeavor. One form of reductionism is notion and another form is a thesis. Reductionism is defined as concepts or statements redefined in terms which are more elementary or basic.

A geographical explanation may say to be reductionist if it attempts to account for a range of phenomena in terms of a single determining factor. In human geography, the most common form of reductionism is probably expressed as descriptions of the behavior of individual actor. Some Marxist theories are said to be reductionist because they attempt to explain the diversity of sound behavior by reference to the economy. Reductionism of a different variety may not be accepted that which views all human patterns in terms of a single-factor explanation such as class struggle that appears to be too simple explanation the great variety of society-environmental relationships which have been observed on the face of the Earth. It is rather difficult to comment on the success of reductionist methods in geography, given the fact that geography has yet to achieve a great success in terms of laws.

Hypothesis

Theory, law, logic, and reduction are the key elements of scientific thinking, but there is, however, a fifth element i.e. research hypothesis which provides a link to the area of scientific practice. A research hypothesis predicts the outcome of an experiment or observation if the theory is correct in well-developed natural science. Thus, a theory can be tested in contexts other than those for which it was originally devised. Hypotheses are a tentative statement that guides empirical work in several scientific epistemologies. In other words, we can say a hypothesis is a structured speculation that must be empirically tested.

Types of Hypotheses

There are different kinds of hypotheses used in the social or geographical analysis, studies and research. However, there are 4 types of hypotheses: 

1. Research Hypotheses: Hypotheses derived from the researcher’s theory about some geographical phenomena are called research hypotheses or working hypotheses. 
2. Null Hypotheses: Null hypotheses are hypothetical models used to test research hypotheses. It is also considered as the reverse of research hypotheses. 
3. Scientific Hypotheses: the Scientific hypothesis is a general proposition about all the things of a certain sort. It is an empirical proposition and is testable by experience. 
4. Statistical Hypotheses: Statistical hypotheses that observations about people or things are reduced in some way to numerical quantities and decisions are made about these quantities. 

Functions of Hypotheses

A major function of hypotheses is to make it possible to test theories. In this regard, an alternative definition of a hypothesis is that it is a statement of theory in testable forms. Some hypotheses are not associated with any particular theory. It could become out as a result of some hypothesis, a theory will be constructed.Consequently, another function of hypotheses is to suggest theories that may account for some event.

Hypotheses also perform a descriptive function. Each time a hypothesis is tested empirically and its result tells something about the phenomena. If the hypothesis is supported, then the information about the phenomena increases. Even if the hypothesis is refuted, the test tells something about the phenomenon that is not known before.

Testing Hypotheses

Testing Hypotheses means subjecting them to some sort of empirical scrutiny to determine if they are supported or refuted by what the researchers observed. The accumulation of information as a result of hypothesis testing reduces the amount of ignorance we may have about why a social event occurs in a given way. There is two prerequisites for hypothesis testing: 

1. A real social situation is needed that will suffice as a reasonable testing ground for the hypothesis. 
2. The investigator should make sure that his or her hypotheses are testable.

Geographical Application of Scientific Methods: Some Problems

After the 1950s there is continuing debate with regard to the application of scientific method in geography. There were two mutually exclusive arguments on this issue. One side argued that scientific method should be introduced into both physical and human geography. On the other hand, some geographers had claimed that the discipline was in some sense and exceptional discipline which might be excused from the constraints of the scientific method.

Despite counter arguments and dichotomies, after 1960s geographical research using the quasi-scientific method with emphasize on law seeking methods and model-based paradigms. The philosophical and methodological base for this was carried forward by many young AngloAmerican geographers. A number of textbooks in both human and physical geography emphasized the need for theory, laws, hypotheses, measurement and statistical techniques. But the protagonist of this approach was often unaware of the problems inherent in the scientific approach and could not identify the additional problem posed by its geographical use. Most of these problems stemmed from the twin fact that geography as whole deals with multi-variable open systems and human geography deals with knowing the subject.

Relevance Scientific Method in Geography

Scientific methods hold relevance in geographical research and training in both physical and human geography for three reasons: 

1. The scientific method does have the ability to provide coherent and testable theories about the nature of geographical phenomena. 
2. The scientific method remains appealing because it is logically corrected extension of thought structures developed in everyday life, including the willingness to correct theories or hypotheses in the light of experience. 
3. Knowledge of a scientific type is required by society for its purpose of managing the social and natural system.

However the scientific geography cannot remain untouched by critical evaluations and criticisms, the elements which are required to be retained had to be modified. As a result of these many geographical theories were derivative. The ability or inability of derivative theories to provide the basis for geographical explanation largely dependent on the test of their overall value as research programmes.

The advocates of the application of the scientific method of geography feel that at the level of practice, geography would need to retain most of its elements so as to prove the ‘scientific status’ of the discipline. There will be a continuing need for statistical analysis to carry on the application of scientific method to geographical study, research, and training. There is no doubt that the application of scientific method to geography has given a nomothetic basis to the discipline with a scientific status and saved it from the crisis of its identity that is suffered during the transition period.