Allahabad University Ancient History Second Year Second Paper Unit V -

Ancient History – 2nd Year

Paper – II (PYQs Soln.)

Unit V

Q1. Give an account of the early history of Cholas upto the time of Rajaraja I.

The Chola Dynasty (300 CE – 1300 CE) was a Tamil kingdom in southern India, and it was one of the world’s longest-ruling empires. The first datable allusions to the Chola are in inscriptions left by Ashoka of the Maurya Empire in the third century BCE. The dynasty governed over varied areas until the 13th century CE as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, together with the Chera and Pandya. Despite these ancient beginnings, the time when the term “Chola Empire” is applicable only begins with the medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE.

Cholas

The Cholas (300 CE – 1300 CE) were a great empire in southern India whose influence spread well beyond their borders.
They were active participants in the Hindu cultural impact observed in Southeast Asia today.
During the Chola period, Tamil culture and the arts achieved their pinnacle.
The Cholas’ history is divided into four periods: the Sangam Cholas, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya, the Vijayalaya dynasty, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.
The Cholas were great warriors who used military strength to extend their empire, as well as astute politicians who struck deals and exchanged gifts with local kings to exert influence over new regions without the administrative difficulties of direct governance.
The family acquired control of the new area via both real and metaphorical means.
As their royal emblem, Chola rulers used a tiger symbol.

Cholas – Source

The principal resource for studying Chola history is over 10,000 inscriptions carved on copper and stone.
The inscriptions mostly chronicle kings’ and other people’s endowments and contributions to temples.
Land transactions and taxes (both collection and exemption) are significant components of its substance.
Copper plates, in addition to stone inscriptions, contain royal orders.
They also include information on ancestry, battles, conquests, administrative divisions, local government, property rights, and taxation.
Tamil literature flourished throughout this period, hence literary materials abound. The rise of bhakti saints and the composition of hymns reflect societal characteristics of the time.
This time includes Muvarula and the renowned epic Kamba Ramayanam.
Pranthaka Chola’s Uttaramerur Inscription outlines the election of local self-government committees.

Origin

Prior to the 7th century CE, there is relatively little written evidence for the Cholas.
The primary sources of knowledge on the early Cholas include Sangam Period Tamil literature, oral traditions, religious writings, and temple, and copperplate inscriptions.
This reign lasted for nearly five centuries, until the 13th century. However, the state of Andhra had a Chola monarchy that flourished far and wide about the 2nd century.
Sangam literature emerged during the early days of Chola dominance. Kantaman was a famous king during this time period.
The Cholas had ultimate power and growth during the medieval period. This is when rulers such as Aditya I and Parantaka I reigned.
Rajaraj Chola and Rajendra Chola expanded the dominion into the Tamil area from here.
Later Kulothunga Chola took over Kalinga to establish a strong rule.
Later Cholas asserted a long and ancient pedigree as well.
The Cholas are referenced in Ashokan Edicts (written 273 BCE-232 BCE) as one of the Mauryan Empire’s southern neighbors who, while not subject to Ashoka, were amicable with him.
There are also brief mentions of the Chola land and its towns, ports, and commerce in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy’s little later book.
The 5th century CE Buddhist scripture Mahavamsa chronicles a series of confrontations in the 1st century BCE between the natives of Ceylon and the Cholas.

Early Cholas

The Sangam literature mentions the early Chola monarchs for whom there is substantial proof.
Scholars generally believe that this literature dates from the late pre-Common Era to the early years of the Common Era (600 BCE – 300 CE).
Legends concerning mythological Chola monarchs are also recorded in Sangam literature.
These legends tell of the Chola monarch Kantaman, a purported contemporary of the philosopher Agastya, whose devotion created the river Kaveri.
Among the Chola rulers believed to have existed and mentioned in Sangam literature, two names stand out: Karikala and Kocengannan.
There are no solid ways of determining the sequence of succession, or of resolving their relationships with one another and with numerous other princelings of the same era.
Their first capital was Uraiyur.
Kaveripattinam was also an early Chola capital. According to the Mahavamsa.
A Tamil adventurer named Ellalan, a Chola ruler attacked and conquered the island of Sri Lanka with the support of a Mysore army in 235 BCE.

Interregnum period of Cholas

There is little evidence available regarding the three-century transition period from the end of the Sangam age (about 300) to the reign of the Pandyas and Pallavas over the Tamil nation.
The Kalabhras were an unknown dynasty that invaded Tamil land, overthrew the previous kings, and ruled during the time.
In the sixth century, the Pallava and Pandyan dynasties supplanted them.
Little is known about the Cholas’ destiny in the three centuries that followed until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second part of the ninth century.
Mutharaiyars / Muthurajas controlled the kingdom for three centuries, according to inscriptions discovered in and around Thanjavur.
Between 848 and 851 CE, Vijayalaya chola seized Thanjavur from Ilango Mutharaiyar and ended their dynasty.

Imperial Cholas

Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty, which marked the beginning of one of India’s most magnificent empires.
In 850, Vijayalaya, likely a feudatory of the Pallava dynasty, took advantage of a war between the Pandya and Pallava dynasties and seized Thanjavur from Mutharaiyar, establishing the imperial line of the medieval Chola Dynasty.
Thanjavur became the Imperial Chola Dynasty’s capital.
During the medieval period, the Chola dynasty was at the pinnacle of its influence and strength.
Chola rulers increased their realm and influence via their vision and leadership.
Aditya I, the second Chola King, ended the Pallava dynasty by defeating the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty.
Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were the Chola dynasty’s greatest kings, expanding it beyond the conventional boundaries of a Tamil state.
The Chola Empire spanned from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna river basin in the north, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast (the Chea region), Lakshadweep, and the Maldives.
Rajendra’s domain covered the Ganges-Hooghly-Damodar basin, as well as Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
The kingdoms along India’s east coast up to the Ganges recognized Chola suzerainty.
In 1016, 1033, and 1077, three diplomatic missions were dispatched to China.

Later Cholas

Following Rajaraja’s conquest of Vengi, marriage and political connections amongst the Eastern Chalukyas began.
Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola, and other successors like as Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha, headed the Later Chola dynasty.
However, the power of the later Cholas, beginning with Rajaraja Chola II and ending with Rajendra Chola III, was not as strong as that of the monarchs between 850 and 1215.
Under Rajaraja Chola II (1146-1175), the Chola Empire was still largely territorially intact, as evidenced by the construction and completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam.
Chola administration and territorial integrity were stable and prosperous until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III in 1215, but the decline of Chola power began following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215-16.

Important Chola Rulers

Chola Rulers	Significance
Karikala chola	Karikala ruled southern India as a Chola dynasty king. He is credited with building the flood banks of the Kaveri River. He is regarded as the greatest of the Cholas. Karikala’s story is intertwined with legend and anecdotal information gleaned from Sangam literature. In 90 CE, Karikala ruled. Karikala Chola fought a great battle at Venni in which both Pandyan and Cheran kings, Uthiyan Cheralathan and Uthiyan Cheralathan, were killed. In his poem from Agananuru, Paranar, a contemporary of Karikala, mentions this incident without elaborating on the cause of the conflict.
Vijayala (850 CE)	Vijayalaya Chola was a South Indian king who founded the Chola Empire. He ruled over the area north of the Kaveri River. He was initially a Pallava feudatory. Vijayalaya captured Thanjavur and made it his capital, as well as constructing a temple to the goddess Nisumbasuthani (Durga) there, according to the Tiruvalangadu plates. He renovated Tanjore, according to the Kanyakumari inscription. Vijayalaya was bestowed with the title Parakesarivarman.
Parantaka Ⅰ (957 – 973 CE)	At the famous Battle of Vellore, he defeated the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon. In the famous battle of Takkolam, he was defeated by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. Tondaimandalam was conquered by the Rashtrakuta army. Parantaka I was a fantastic temple builder. He also gave the vimana of Chidambaram’s famous Nataraja temple a golden roof. His reign is represented by the two famous Uthiramerur inscriptions, which provide a detailed account of village administration under the Cholas.
Sundara Chola (957 – 973 CE)	Sundara Chola was another name for Parantaka II. When Parantaka II became king, the Chola kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality. The southern Pandyas had revived their fortunes, defeating Chola armies and retaking their ancestral lands. During Parantaka II’s reign, the foundation for the Chola Empire’s success a generation later was laid. A few northern lands were reclaimed. The Pandyan ruler, Vira Pandya, was defeated, and Madurai was taken. An expedition was launched in an unsuccessful attempt to seize control of Sri Lanka.
Rajaraja Ⅰ (985 – 1014 CE)	The Chola power reached its pinnacle during the reigns of Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I. His military conquests, administrative reforms, and architectural brilliance earned him a place in South Indian history unlike any other. His sprawling empire included the Pandya kingdom in southern Tamil Nadu, the Chera kingdom in central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu, and northern Sri Lanka. He also purchased the atolls of Lakshadweep and Thiladhunmadulu, which are part of the Maldives’ northernmost Indian Ocean islands. Campaigns against the Western Gangas and the Chalukyas extended the Cholas’ influence all the way to the Tungabhadra River.
Rajendra Ⅰ (1014 – 1044 CE)	In 1014 CE, Rajendra succeeded his father Rajaraja I. Rajendra I’s vast Chola empire included most of modern-day south India, with the river Krishna serving as its northern boundary, as well as Sri Lanka, the Laccadives, and the Maldives. He led a successful military expedition to the Ganges through Orissa and Bengal, bringing Ganges water to Gangaikondacholapuram, his new capital in the Kaveri Delta. Around 1025 CE, Rajendra launched an ambitious campaign against the Srivijaya (the southern Malay peninsula and Sumatra). The Cholas gained control of a number of strategic locations along the Malacca Straits as a result of this campaign.
Rajadhiraja (1044 – 1052 CE)	As he fought with his men on the front lines, he was known as Jayamkonda Chola (the victorious Chola king). He destroyed Chalukyan cities like Kalyani and established a Jaystambha at Yadgir. The Cholas were known for plundering and slaughtering the people of the regions they conquered. He was killed on the battlefield while fighting against Someshwar, the western Chalukyan king, at the Battle of Koppam. He was given the name Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (the king who died on the back of an elephant).

Administration

The king was in charge, and Chola inscriptions refer to him as Ko, Perumal Adigal (the great one), and Ko-Konmai Kondan (king of kings).
The king is described in the Chola inscriptions as a great warrior, conqueror, great patron of art, destroyer of evils, generous and a protector with a pleasing personality.
The king went on royal tours to improve administration efficiency.
The administration structure was larger than that of the Cheras, Pandyas, and Pallavas.
However, after the death of Kulottunga I, it began to decline, and the power of local chieftains grew.
The Rashtriyam/Rajyam (empire) was divided into eight Mandals (provinces), each with its own governor/viceroy (generally a prince).
The provinces were subdivided further into Valanadus or Kottams, and each Valanadus was subdivided further into Nadus (districts) under Nattar.
Nadus was made up of several autonomous villages. The guilds and Shrenis were also involved in administration.
Nagaram was the assembly of mercantile groups/merchants and was specific to different trades and specialised groups.
The administrative structure grew in size, particularly during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I.
The government at the time had a large land revenue department with several tiers that was primarily concerned with accounting.
Revenue was assessed and collected by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram, and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre.
During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I, the state launched a massive land survey and assessment project, and the empire was reorganised into valanadus.
The executive officer was the first to communicate the King’s order to the local authorities.
Following that, the transaction’s records were drawn up and attested to by a number of witnesses who were either local magnates or government officials.

Village Administration

There were two types of Chola village assemblies:
Ur – The general assembly of non-Brahmadeya village residents (or Vellanvagai villages). The assembly was thought to have fewer than ten members.
Sabha or Mahasabha – Two inscriptions from the Parantaka period discovered at Uthiramerur provide information on the formation and operation of Sabhas.
The Sabha was an assembly of Brahmans/adult male members in agraharas, which were rent-free Brahmadeya villages with a high degree of autonomy.
The Brahmana sabha and the Chola court were inextricably linked; for example, the sabha’s resolution was made in the presence of an official delegated by the king.
The members of the committee were chosen by lot or by rotation. Membership was governed by certain criteria such as land ownership, Vedic knowledge, good conduct, and so on.
The members of the committee were known as Variya Perumakkal, and they usually met in a temple or under a tree.
The Chola village assembly was the sole owner of both the village lands and the newly acquired lands.
Land revenue was the Chola empire’s main source of income, accounting for one-sixth of total output.
The village assembly collected the revenue, which was paid in cash, kind, or both.
The Chola government conducted the land survey. The inscriptions also mention land transfers through sale or gift.
There are also several references to villages led by women.
In a 902 CE inscription, a woman named Bittaya is mentioned as the head of the village Bharangiyur.

Economy

The main sources of revenue were land revenue and trade taxes.
The Chola rulers issued gold, silver, and copper coins.
At the local level, agricultural settlements served as the foundation for commercial towns nagaram, which served as redistribution centers for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy as well as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for international trade.
The elite merchant groups (samayam) who organized and dominated the region’s international maritime trade were at the top of this economic pyramid.
Cotton cloth was one of the most important items exported to other countries.
Uraiyur, the early Chola rulers’ capital, was a well-known center for cotton textiles, which were praised by Tamil poets.
Metal crafts reached their pinnacle during the 10th and 11th centuries, thanks to the patronage of Chola rulers such as Chembian Maadevi.
Wootz steel was a significant export item.
Farmers held some of the highest positions in society.
A brisk internal trade in several articles was conducted by organized mercantile corporations in various parts of the country.
Metal industries and jewellers‘ art had advanced to a high level of excellence.
The production of sea salt was supervised and controlled by the government. Merchants were organized into guilds to conduct business.

Foreign Trade

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their reach to China and Southeast Asia.
Southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity by the end of the ninth century.
South Indian guilds played an important role in interregional and international trade.
The main trading partners were the Chinese Tang dynasty, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.
The dynasty must also be credited with the emergence of a global market.
It was crucial in connecting China’s markets to the rest of the world.
The Chola dynasty’s market structure and economic policies were more conducive to large-scale, cross-regional market trade than the Chinese Tsang dynasty.

Chola dynasty – Trade route

Society

Several guilds, communities, and castes arose during the Chola period. The guild was one of South India’s most important institutions, and merchants organized themselves into guilds.
The Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds were the most well-known, but other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar also existed.
Farmers held some of the highest positions in society.
The Vellalar community comprised the country’s nobility or landed aristocracy and was an economically powerful group.
Under the Chola rulers, the Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste, providing courtiers, most army officers, lower ranks of the bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry.
The people of the core Chola region were able to live productive and contented lives as a result of the region’s stability.

Military

The Chola dynasty had a strong military, with the king serving as supreme commander.
It had four components: cavalry, elephant corps, several infantry divisions, and a navy.
There were bowmen and swordsmen regiments, with the swordsmen being the most permanent and dependable troops.
The Chola army was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams throughout the country.
Elephants were important in the army, and the dynasty had many war elephants.
To protect their cities, the Chola rulers constructed a number of palaces and fortifications.
The fortifications were primarily constructed of bricks, but other materials such as stone, wood, and mud were also used.
The Chola dynasty’s soldiers fought with steel weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears, and shields.
The famous Wootz steel, which has a long history in south India dating back before the Christian era, appears to be used to make weapons as well.
The army was made up of people from various castes, but warriors from the Kaikolar and Vellalar castes played a significant role.
The Chola navy represented the pinnacle of ancient India’s sea power.
It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Srivijaya.
The Chola rulers supported a martial art known as Silambam.

Art and Architecture

Chola architecture is associated with the imperial Cholas, who ruled Southern India, including most of what is now Tamil Nadu, from 850 to 1250 CE.
The Chola period was characterized by constant innovation in the fields of architecture and art.
The Chola architecture was created by utilizing the enormous wealth gained through their aggressive conquest in endless wars against several south-east Asian kingdoms.
Under the Cholas, the Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its pinnacle.
Temple construction was prolific during Rajaraja Chola’s reign of 1009 years. Rajaraja I’s Brihadeeswara Temple in Tanjore is a work of art in South Indian art and architecture.
The Vimana, Ardhamandapa, Mahamandapa, and a large pavilion in front known as the Nandi Mandapa make up the structure.
Tanjore’s magnificent Shiva temple is known as Rajarajeswara or Brihadiswara Temple.
Rajaraja Chola (Rajaraja-I) commissioned and completed this temple around 1009.
Another notable Chola contribution to temple architecture is Rajendra I’s Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram.
Later Chola temples include the Airavatesvara temple in Tanjore District and the Kampaharesvara temple in Tribhuvanam.
Shiva, the primary deity of Chola temples, is depicted as a massive lingam set in a two-story sanctum.
Through painted murals and sculptures, the wall surrounding the lingam was depicted with a mythological narrative.

Airavatesvara temple

Bronze statues of Nataraja

Chola bronzes are famous all over the world. The bronze statues of Nataraja and dancing Siva are works of art.
Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi erected Nataraja’s oldest free-standing stone sculptures.
Nataraja Statues depict dancing Shiva and date from the 10th century AD Chola Empire.
It also represents Lord Shiva smiling while dancing, demonstrating the calm and energetic personality he possesses.
The dance postures represent the universe’s creation, preservation, and destruction.
Chola paintings have been discovered on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.

Nataraja Statues

Chola Paintings

Nartamalai contains Chola paintings.
The most important Chola paintings were discovered in Tanjore’s Brihadeeswara temple.
The paintings were created on the walls of the shrine’s narrow passageway.
Two layers of paintings were discovered in the Brihadeshwara temples. The upper layer was completed in the 16th century during the Nayak period.
The Chola paintings in the temple depict Lord Shiva’s narration, Shiva as Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, and so on.

Chola Painting – Dancing girl, Brihadeeswara temple

Literature

The Imperial Chola era was a golden age of Tamil culture, characterized by the prominence of literature.
Many works, including the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam, and Kannivana Puranam, are mentioned in Chola records.
Tirutakkatevar’s Jivaka-chintamani and Tolamoli’s Sulamani are two notable works by non-Hindu authors.
Buddhamitra, a grammarian, wrote Virasoliyam, a text on Tamil grammar.
Commentaries have been written on the great text Tolkappiyam, which deals with grammar but also mentions warfare ethics.
Periyapuranam was another outstanding literary work from this era. During the reign of Kulothunga III, Kamban flourished.
Nannul is a work on Tamil grammar from the Chola period. It covers all five areas of grammar.
Under the patronage of the rulers, the period was especially significant for the development of Telugu literature.
It was the era in which the great Telugu poets Tikkana, Ketana, Marana, and Somana contributed to the literature.

Religion

In general, Cholas practiced Hinduism.
They were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as the Pallava and Pandya dynasties were. Kocengannan, an Early Chola, was revered as a Hindu saint in both Sangam literature and the Shaivite canon.
While the Cholas did construct their most important and largest temple dedicated to Shiva.
This is supported by the fact that the second Chola king, Aditya I (871-903 CE), constructed temples for both Shiva and Vishnu.
There are allegations of intolerance towards Vaishnavites, particularly their acharya, Ramanuja, during the period of the Later Cholas.
Even though Chola emperors like Rajaraja Chola I held titles like Sivapadasekharan, none of their inscriptions declared that their clan only and solely followed Shaivism or that Shaivism was the state religion during their rule.

Decline of Cholas

The Cholas were quite weak under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, and thus faced constant trouble.
The growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in Kannada country at the end of the 12th century, but they, too, faced constant trouble from the Saunas and Kalachuris, who were occupying Chalukya capital because those empires were their new rivals.
One of the causes of inefficiency that led to the empire’s demise was dishonesty and infiltration of armed forces in the empire’s final days.
Corruption played a significant role in the dynasty’s demise.
The Cholas could not accept their defeat at the hands of the Pandyas.
With Kanchipuram already in the hands of the Telugu Cholas, the remaining Chola territories passed to the Pandyan king.
The Chola dynasty ended in 1279, when King Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated Rajendra Chola III and established Pandya rule.

Conclusion

The Chola Dynasty (300 CE – 1300 CE) was a Tamil kingdom in southern India that ruled for over a millennium. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty ruled over various areas until the 13th century CE. The Cholas were great warriors who expanded their empire through military might. They were active participants in the Hindu cultural influence seen today in Southeast Asia.

Q2. Discuss the career and achievements of Mahendravarman I.

Mahendravarman I (600–630 AD) was a Pallava emperor who ruled the southern portion of modern-day Andhra Pradesh and the northern regions of what is now Tamil Nadu in India in the early 7th century. He was an academic, a painter, an architect, and a musician. He was Simhavishnu’s son, who defeated the Kalabhras and restored the Pallava kingdom.

Background

During his reign, the long-running Pallava–Chalukya conflict began. Pulakesin II marched against the Pallavas and conquered the Pallava kingdom’s northern half.
Although a Pallava inscription mentions Mahendravarman I’s victory at Pullalur, he was unable to reclaim the lost territory.
In the early stages of his career, Mahendravarman I practised Jainism. Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar, a Shaiva saint, influenced him to convert to Shaivism. He constructed a Siva temple in Tiruvadi.
He was known as Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chettakari (temple builder), Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta, and Mattavilasa.
He was an expert in the construction of cave temples. The Mandagappattu inscription honours him as Vichitrachitta, who built a temple for Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva without using bricks, wood, metal, or mortar.
His rock-cut temples can be found in Vallam, Mahendravadi, Dalavanur, Pallavaram, Mandagappattu, and Tiruchirappalli.
In addition, he wrote the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam. His name, Chitrakarapuli, reveals his artistic abilities.
He is also regarded as a music expert. He is credited with the music inscription at Kudumianmalai.

Art & Architecture During His Reign

Mahendravarman was an avid supporter of literature and architecture. He built the Mahabalipuram Lighthouse and Kanchi University, where he taught Vedas, Buddhism, Jainism, painting, music, and dance.
Among the Pallavas, he was a pioneer of rock-cut architecture.
The Mandagapattu Tirumurti Temple’s inscription honours him as Vichitrachitta and claims that the temple was built without the use of wood, brick, mortar, or metal.
During his reign, he also built the five-celled cave temple at Pallavaram, as well as the Kokarneswarar Temple, Thirukokarnam in Pudukottai, Tamil Nadu.
Kudimiya malai Inscription was created by him. His works can be found in Sittanavasal Cave (Tamil Nadu).

Literary Work During His Reign

He was also the author of the farce Mattavilasa Prahasana about Buddhist and Saiva ascetics. He is also credited with writing another play, Bhagavadajjuka.
This is demonstrated by the inscriptions discovered at Mamandur cave shrines (near Kanchipuram – this place is mentioned as Dusi Mamandur to avoid confusions with other places by the same name).
However, there is another school of thought that attributes this play to Bodhayana.

Religion Followed by Mahendravarman

Mahendravarman was a Jain patron at first, but he converted to the Shaiva faith after being influenced by the Saiva saint Appar.
According to Dhivyacharitam, a Sanskrit work on the life of Alwars written in the 12th century, Yatotkara perumal (mahavishnu), enshrined in Kancheepuram, left the city along with his great devotee Thirumalisai Alvar.
It was because the Vaishnava Alwar faced harsh persecution and exilement from the king who had at least temporarily come under the influence of Jainism.

Defeat

The Chalukya King Pulakesin II defeated Mahendravarman I at Pullalur, near Kanchi.
Pulakesin II was on his way to Pallava capital, but Mahendravarman bought peace by ceding their Northern provinces to Pulakesin II.
In 642 AD, Narasimhavarman I (the son of Mahendravarman I) exacted his father’s vengeance on Pulakesin II by defeating and killing him in the Battle of Vatapi and capturing the Chalukyan capital, Vatapi.

Conclusion

Mahendravarman I was a multi-talented genius who succeeded his father Simhavishnu. In 630 CE, Mahendravarman was succeeded to the throne by his more famous son Narasimhavarman I, who defeated Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty and ransacked Vatapi, the Chalukyan capital city (also known as Badami).

Q3. Give an account of the early history of Chalukyas upto Pulkeshin II.

The Chalukyas of Badami, also known as the Early Chalukyas, were one of the most significant dynasties in early medieval India, known for their contributions to art, architecture, and political history. Their rise to prominence marks an important phase in the history of the Deccan, a region that became a melting pot of cultural and political activity under their rule.

Origins of the Chalukyas

The origin of the Chalukyas is shrouded in mystery, with multiple theories proposed by historians. One theory suggests that the Chalukyas were of Kannada-speaking origin, rooted in the Deccan. Another claims they were of northern Indian descent, possibly migrating to the Deccan during the decline of the Gupta Empire. The Chalukyas themselves claimed descent from the legendary Solar dynasty (Suryavansha), associating their lineage with divine ancestry to legitimize their rule. The dynasty rose to prominence in the 6th century CE, with their stronghold in the town of Vatapi (modern-day Badami, Karnataka).

Establishment of the Dynasty

The founder of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakeshin I, who established his rule around 543 CE. Pulakeshin I fortified the town of Badami and made it his capital, marking the beginning of the Chalukyan dominance in the Deccan. His reign laid the groundwork for the consolidation of the Chalukyan kingdom. He assumed the title “Satyashraya”, meaning “Abode of Truth,” reflecting his ambition to establish a strong and just rule.

Pulakeshin I’s successors expanded their territories and enhanced the dynasty’s power. His son, Kirtivarman I, succeeded him and played a pivotal role in extending Chalukyan influence. Kirtivarman I conquered several neighboring territories, including the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Mauryas of Konkan. His military successes established the Chalukyas as a formidable force in peninsular India. However, his untimely death led to a brief period of instability.

Mangalesha’s Rule

After Kirtivarman I, his brother Mangalesha assumed power as a regent for Kirtivarman’s young sons. Mangalesha proved to be an able ruler, continuing the expansionist policies of his predecessors. He subdued the Kalachuris of Mahishmati and consolidated Chalukyan control over a vast expanse of the Deccan. Despite his successes, Mangalesha’s ambition to retain power beyond his regency led to a conflict with his nephew, Pulakeshin II, culminating in a power struggle.

Rise of Pulakeshin II

Pulakeshin II, the most illustrious ruler of the Early Chalukyas, ascended the throne in 610 CE after overthrowing Mangalesha. His reign marked the zenith of Chalukyan power and prestige. Pulakeshin II was an exceptional ruler, known for his military conquests, administrative skills, and patronage of art and culture. Under his leadership, the Chalukyan kingdom transformed into a pan-Indian empire.

One of Pulakeshin II’s first challenges was to consolidate his rule over the Chalukyan territories. He successfully subdued internal dissent and secured his position. He then embarked on a series of military campaigns to expand the Chalukyan empire. Pulakeshin II defeated the Kadambas of Banavasi, the Alupas of South Karnataka, and the Gangas of Talakad, asserting his supremacy in the southern Deccan. He also successfully campaigned against the Mauryas of Konkan, securing control over the western coastal regions.

Confrontation with Harsha

One of Pulakeshin II’s most notable achievements was his victory against Harsha of Kannauj, a powerful emperor of North India. Harsha had extended his influence into the Deccan, but Pulakeshin II decisively repelled his advances. The celebrated Chinese traveler Xuanzang, who visited India during this period, recorded Pulakeshin’s triumph over Harsha. This victory not only safeguarded the Chalukyan empire but also elevated Pulakeshin II’s status as one of the greatest rulers of his time.

Expansion and Administration

Pulakeshin II extended his empire to encompass the eastern Deccan by defeating the Vishnukundins. He also established suzerainty over the Pallavas of Kanchi, although this was a short-lived achievement. His administrative efficiency and strong military ensured the stability of his empire. Pulakeshin II assumed grand titles such as “Paramabhagavat” and “Dakshinapatheshwara,” emphasizing his role as the overlord of the southern territories.

Contributions to Art and Culture

The early Chalukyas were renowned for their patronage of art and architecture. The rock-cut temples of Badami and the structural temples of Aihole and Pattadakal are enduring legacies of their artistic vision. These temples, built during Pulakeshin II’s reign and earlier, exhibit a blend of Dravidian and Nagara styles, showcasing the cultural synthesis of the Deccan.

Conclusion

By the end of Pulakeshin II’s reign, the Chalukyan empire had become a dominant force in peninsular India. His conquests, administrative reforms, and patronage of art established the Chalukyas as one of the most influential dynasties of early medieval India. Pulakeshin II’s successors would face challenges, including renewed hostilities with the Pallavas, but his reign remains a golden era in the history of the Chalukyas.

Q4. Bring out the salient features of Chola Administration.

The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire in southern India, and it was one of the world’s longest-ruling dynasties. The family came to dominate the region in the mid-ninth century, establishing an empire that would last more than 400 years. The Chola Dynasty, which was based in the fertile Kaveri River delta in the present-day Indian state of Tamil Nadu, ruled much of south India and as far as Sri Lanka and the Maldives at its peak in the eleventh century. The Chola Empire was organized into three major administrative units: the Central Government, the Provincial Government, and the Local Government. The Uttaramerur inscriptions shed light on Chola administration. The king presided over the administration. The Chola kingship was a hereditary position.

Origin of Chola Dynasty

The Cholas’ reign began in the 9th century, when they defeated the Pallavas and took power. This rule lasted for over five centuries, until the 13th century.
However, in the early 2nd century, the state of Andhra had a Chola kingdom that flourished far and wide. Sangam literature emerged during the early periods of Chola rule. Kantaman was a prominent ruler during this time period.
For the Cholas, the medieval period was a time of absolute power and development. This is when kings such as Aditya I and Parantaka I reigned.
Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola expanded the kingdom into the Tamil region from here.
Later, Kulothunga Chola took control of Kalinga in order to establish a strong rule. This splendour lasted until the Pandyas arrived in the early 13th century.

Features

The Chola kings used a highly efficient administration system. The Chola Mandalam included the entire Tanjore district as well as parts of Trichy, Pudukottai, and South Arcot districts.
The Cholas were divided into three major administrative divisions: Central Government, Provincial Government, and Local Government. Tanjore was the Cholas’ capital.
Many historians and rulers have praised the efficient Chola administrative system.

Administration under Cholas

Kingship

The king was in charge of the administration. The Chola kings and queens were regarded as God’s representatives. Temples housed their idols. The Chola throne was hereditary.
The Chola royal family followed the principle that the eldest son of the king should succeed to the Chola throne. Yuvaraja was the name of the heir apparent.
The Chola monarchs wielded tremendous power and privilege. The Chola kings were given titles to commemorate their accomplishments.
They lived in enormous royal palaces. In their administration, kings were assisted by ministers and officials. The tiger was the royal emblem of Chola kings.

Central Administration

The King is the head of the Central Government. The Council of Ministers and officials actively participated in the administration of the Central Government.
The higher officials were known as Peruntaram, while the lower officials were known as Siruntaram.

Provincial Administration

The Chola Empire comprised of nine provinces. They were also known as mandalams. The viceroy was the province’s ruler. Viceroys were appointed by close relatives of kings.
The Viceroys were always in contact with the Central Government. The king gave orders to viceroys.
They responded to the king on a regular basis. The viceroys were assisted in their administrative duties by a large number of officials.

Divisions of Administration

The Chola administration’s success was more dependent on the administrative division’s smooth operation.
Generally, mandalams were named after the Chola kings’ original names or titles. Each mandalam was subdivided into Kottams or Valanadus.
Every kottam was further subdivided into nadu. Each nadu was further subdivided into (Urs) villages, which formed the final administrative unit.
The Chola administration is mentioned in the Uttaramerur inscriptions.

Local Administration

The local administration at the district, town, and village levels was the most important feature of the Chola administration.
The inscriptions at Uttaramerur reveal a lot about the Chola administration.
The most distinguishing feature of the Chola administrative system was village autonomy.

Nadu

Nadu was one of the Cholas’ most important administrative units. Nadus had democratically elected assemblies.
Nattars were the names given to the nadus’ heads. Nadu’s council was known as nattavai.
Agriculture was promoted by Nattavais and Nattars representatives. They were also in charge of public safety and tax collection.

Administration of the Village

The village assembly, known as Gram Sabha, was solely responsible for village administration. The village unit was the lowest level of Chola administration.
The village assemblies were in charge of keeping the peace, tanks, roads, public ponds, revenue collection, the judiciary, education, and temples.
The village assemblies were in charge of paying taxes owed to the treasury by the villages. They regulated public markets and assisted people during times of flood and fathine.
Assembly provisions for education were made. The village assemblies had complete control over the affairs of the villages.
They kept law and order in each village. Chathurvedi mangalam was the name of a Brahmin settlement.

Variyams

Village Assemblies effectively managed village administration with the help of variyams. These variyams were made up of male members of society.
The composition of these variyams, as well as the qualifications and durations of membership, varied from village to village.
Every village had a plethora of variyams. Thottavariyam looked after the flower gardens, while Niyaya variyam administered justice. The Dharma variyam was in charge of charities and temples.
Erivariyam was in charge of the water tanks and supply. The finance was overseen by the pon variyam. The Gramakariya variyam was in charge of overseeing the work of all committees.
These varivams’ members were dubbed “Varivaperumakkal.” They performed honourable service. The village officials were either paid in cash or in kind.
The effectiveness of these variams increased the efficiency of Chola local administration.

Revenue of Cholas

The Chola Government’s main source of income was land revenue. A thorough land survey was carried out.
Land was divided into two categories: taxable land and non-taxable land. The taxable lands had a wide range of grades.
The revenue from land varied according to these grades. Generally, 1/6 of the land yield was collected as tax, either in cash or in kind, or both, depending on the farmers’ convenience.
Aside from land revenue, there were other sources of income such as customs and tolls. Mine, port, forest, and salt pan taxes were levied. Professional and property taxes were also levied. A slew of other taxes were imposed.
The tax burden was heavier on society. People were sometimes unable to pay taxes due to a lack of rain and famine.

Chola’s Army

The Cholas had a strong army and navy. The Chola army had elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Soldiers were properly trained. The ranks of nayaks and senapathis were enjoyed by commanders. There were 70 regiments in the army.
There were 60,000 elephants in the Chola army. To strengthen the cavalry, expensive Arabian horses were imported.
At Kandalur salai, the Chola kings defeated the Cheras. The kings of Ceylon and the Maldives were also overthrown.
In South India, the Chola navy was formidable. The Cholas ruled the Coromandal and Malabar coasts with the help of their navy.
The Bay of Bengal was transformed into the Chola Lake. The Chola army and navy had a total of 150,000 trained soldiers.
In times of need, the armies of the tributary chieftains also joined the Chola army. The Chola army was generally led by the King or Yuvaraja.

Conclusion

During the imperial period (850 – 1200 CE), the Chola government was notable for its uniqueness and innovation. The Cholas were the first dynasty to attempt and, to a large extent, succeed in uniting all of South India under a single rule. Although the form and protocols of that government cannot be compared to a modern form of government, the Chola empire’s history belongs to a happy period in their history when great things were accomplished by the government and the people.

Q5. Give an account of the Chalukya-Pallava Struggle.

The principal interest in the political history of peninsular India from the sixth to the eighth century centres around the long struggle for supremacy between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badami.

The Pandyas, who were in control of Madurai and Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu, joined this conflict as a poor third.

Although both the Pallavas and the Chalukyas championed Brahmanism, performed Vedic sacrifices, and made grants to the brahmanas, the two quarrelled with each other over plunder, prestige, and territorial resources. Both tried to establish supremacy over the land lying between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra. This doab was again the bone of contention in late medieval times between the Vijayanagar and the Bahmani kingdoms.

Time and again, the Pallava princes tried to cross the Tungabhadra, which formed the natural historic boundary between many a kingdom of the Deccan and the deep south. The struggle continued over a long period with varying fortunes. The first important event in this long conflict took place during the reign of Pulakeshin II (ad 609-42), the most famous Chalukya king. He is known to us from the eulogy written on him by the court poet Ravikirti in the Aihole inscription. This inscription is an example of the poetic excellence achieved in Sanskrit, and despite its exaggeration is a valuable source for the life of Pulakeshin.

He subjugated the Kadamba capital at Banavasi and compelled the Gangas of Mysore to acknowledge his suzerainty. He also defeated Harsha’s army on the Narmada and checked his advance towards the Deccan. In his conflict with the Pallavas, he almost reached the Pallava capital, but the Pallavas purchased peace by ceding their northern provinces to Pulakeshin II.

Around ad 610 Pulakeshin II also conquered the entire area between the Krishna and the Godavari, which came to be known as the province of Vengi. Here, a branch of the main dynasty was set up and is known as the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. However, Pulakeshin’s second invasion of Pallava territory ended in failure. The Pallava king Narasimhavarman (AD 630-68) occupied the Chalukya capital at Vatapi in about ad 642, when Pulakesin II was probably killed in a battle against the Pallavas. Narasimhavarman assumed the title of Vatapikonda or the conqueror of Vatapi. He is also said to have defeated the Cholas, the Cheras, the Pandyas, and the Kalabhras.

Towards the end of the seventh century, there was a lull in this conflict, which was again resumed in the first half of the eighth century. The Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (AD 733—45) is said to have overrun Kanchi three times. In ad 740 he completely routed the Pallavas. His victory ended the Pallava supremacy in the far south although the ruling house continued for over a century thereafter. However, the Chalukyas were unable for long to enjoy the fruits of their victory over the Pallavas because their own hegemony was brought to an end in ad 757 by the Rashtrakutas.

Temples

Besides the performance of Vedic sacrifices, the worship of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, especially of the last two, was becoming popular. From the seventh century onwards, the Alvar saints, who were great devotees of Vishnu, popularized the worship of this god. The Nayanars rendered a similar service to the cult of Shiva. From the seventh century onwards, the cult of bhakti began to dominate the religious life of south Indians, and the Alvars and Nayanars played a great part in propagating it.

The Pallava kings constructed a number of stone temples in the seventh abd eighth centuries for housing these gods. The most famous of them are the seven ratha temples at Mahabalipuram, at a distance of 65 km from Chennai. These were built in the seventh century by Narasimhavarman, who founded the port city of Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram.

This city is also famous for the Shore Temple, which was a structural construction erected independently and not hewn out of rock. In addition, the Pallavas constructed several such structural temples at their capital Kanchi. A very good example was the Kailashanath temple built in the eighth century. The Chalukyas of Badami erected numerous temples at Aihole, which has as many as seventy, from about ad 610.

The work was continued in the adjacent towns of Badami and Pattadakal. Pattadakal has ten temples built in the seventh and eighth centuries, the most celebrated of which are the Papanatha icmple (c. AD 680) and the Virupaksha temple (c. AD740). The first of llie.se, although 30 m long, has a low and stunted tower in the northern style; the second was constructed in purely southern style. The latter is about 40 m in length and has a very high square and storeyed tower (shikbara). The temple walls are adorned with beautiful pieces of sculpture, representing scenes from the Ramayana.

We have no clear idea of how these early temples were maintained. Alter the eighth century, land grants to temples became a common practice in south India, and usually they were recorded on the walls of the temples. Most temples were managed by the brahmanas.

By early medieval times, such temples came to own three-fifths of the arable land, and became centres of religious rituals and caste-based ideology in south India. However, the earlier temples seem to have been constructed and maintained out of the taxes directly collected by the king from the common people.

Some temples in Karnataka under the Chalukyas were erected by Jaina traders. The common people worshipped their village gods by offering them paddy and toddy, but those who could afford it might have made rich offerings to acquire status and satisfy their religious cravings.

Demands on the Peasantry

To conduct wars, to cultivate art and literature, to promote religion, and to maintain the administrative staff, enormous resources were needed. These were apparently provided by the peasantry. The nature of burdens imposed on the agrarian communities was more or less the same in the Vakataka and the Pallava kingdoms although the former was in Vidarbha and Maharashtra, and the latter in southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu.

In addition to land tax, which was a part of the produce, the king could demand donations of cereals and gold, and could bore certain trees such as the palmyra to obtain salt and substances derived from plants such as sugar and liquor. Of course, all the natural resources beneath the earth in the villages belonged to him. In addition, he demanded flowers and milk, wood and grass, and could compel the villagers to carry loads free of charge. The king was also entitled to forced labour or vishti.

When royal officials visited the villages either to collect taxes or to punish criminals, and also when the army was on the march, the rural communities had to fulfill several obligations. They had to supply bullocks for carts and provide beds, charcoal, ovens, cooking pots, and attendants. This whole list of imposts indicates that the state made heavy demands on the labour and produce of the peasantry. Most of these are covered by the eighteen types of immunities granted to the brahmanas from the fourth century ad onwards. Later, more and more demands were made on the peasantry.

Land Grants and Rural Expansion

These numerous demands made by the king on the agrarian population presuppose a capacity to pay on the part of the peasantry. Collection could not have been possible without an increase in agricultural production. In this period we witness the formation of new states in the trans-Vindhyan regions. Each state had a number of feudatory chiefdoms, which were small states within a large state.

Each of them, large or small, paramount or feudatory, needed its own administrative machinery, and a substantial number of priestly and other functionaries. Every state, therefore, required resources that could be obtained from its rural base. Therefore, the states could not multiply without the proliferation of rural communities or an increase in the agricultural production of the existing villages.

It seems that in tribal areas, the brahmanas were granted land, and the tribal peasantry learnt the value of preserving cattle and better methods of cultivation from them. The peasants also learnt from the brahmanas the new calendar that helped agriculture. Certain areas suffered from a dearth of labour power.

In order to sustain the economy of such areas, it was also found necessary to make over some sharecroppers and weavers to the brahmanas, as is known from an early Pallava grant. Therefore, the large number of grants made to the brahmanas played an important role in spreading new methods of cultivation and increasing the size of the rural communities.

This period saw three types of villages in south India: ur, sabha, and nagaram. The Ur was the usual type of village inhabited by peasant castes, who perhaps held their land in common; it was the responsibility of the village headman to collect and pay taxes on their behalf.

These villages were mainly found in southern Tamil Nadu. The sabha type of village consisted of brahmadeya villages or those granted to the brahmanas, and of agrahara villages. The brahmana owners enjoyed individual rights in the land but carried on their activities collectively.

The nagaram type of village consisted of a village settled and dominated by combinations of traders and merchants. This possibly happened because trade declined and merchants moved to villages. In the Chalukya areas, rural affairs were managed by village elders t ailed mahajana. On the whole, the period c. AD 300—750 provide good evidence of agricultural expansion, rural organization, and more productive use of land.

Social Structure and Brahmanization

We can present a rough outline of the social structure that developed in this period. Society was dominated by princes and priests. The princes claimed the status of brahmanas or kshatriyas, though many of them were local clan chiefs promoted to the second Varna through benefactions made to the priests.

The priests invented respectable family trees for these chiefs and traced their descent from age-old solar and lunar dynasties. This process enabled the new rulers to acquire acceptability in the eyes of the people. The priests were mainly brahmanas, though the Jaina and Buddhist monks may also be placed in this category.

In this phase, priests through land grants gained in influence and authority. Many south Indian rulers claimed to be brahmanas, which shows that the kshatriyas were not as important in the south as in the north. The same seems to have been the case with the vaishyas. Though the Varna system was introduced in south India, in practice its operation was different from that in Aryavarta or the main part of north India.

However, like the north, below the princes and priests came the peasantry, which was divided into numerous peasant castes. Possibly most of them were called shudras in the brahmanical system. If the peasant and artisan castes failed to produce and render services and payments, it was considered a departure from the established dharma or norm.

Such a situation was described as the age of Kali. It was the duty of the king to put an end to such a state of affairs and restore peace and order which worked in favour of chiefs and priests. The title dharma-maharaja was, therefore, adopted by the Vakataka, Pallava, Kadamba, and Western Ganga kings. The real founder of the Pallava power, Simhavarman, is credited with coming to the rescue of dharma when it was beset with the evils typical of the Kaliyuga. This apparently refers to his suppression of the Kalabhra, peasants who upset the existing social order.

Q6. Give a brief account of the conquests of Rajaraja - I.

Raja Raja I also known as Arumolivarman was the greatest chola ruler who helped raise the chola empire to become the largest dominion in South India till the 13th century. His military conquests, administrative reforms, and architectural brilliance earned him a unique place in South Indian history. The Chola power reached its pinnacle during the reigns of Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I.

Rajaraja I – Background

Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE and was the most powerful king in the south at the time.
He is best known for restoring Chola power and ensuring its supremacy in South India and the Indian Ocean.
His vast empire included the Pandya kingdom (southern Tamil Nadu), the Chera kingdom (central Kerala and western Tamil Nadu), and northern Sri Lanka.
He also purchased the Lakshadweep and Thiladhunmadulu atolls, which are part of the Maldives’ northernmost islands in the Indian Ocean.
Campaigns against the Western Gangas (southern Karnataka) and the Chalukyas pushed the Cholas’ influence all the way to the Tungabhadra River.
On the eastern coast, he fought the Chalukyas for control of Vengi (the Godavari districts).
Rajaraja, a capable administrator, also constructed the magnificent Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur, the Chola capital. The temple is considered to be the most important temple in the medieval south Indian architectural style.
During his reign, the Tamil poets Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar’s works were collected and edited into a single collection called Thirumurai.
In 1000 CE, he launched a massive land survey and assessment project, which resulted in the reorganisation of the country into individual units known as valanadus.
Rajaraja died in 1014 CE, and his son Rajendra Chola I succeeded him.

Military Conquests

Against Kandalur Salai

In around 988 CE, Rajaraja celebrated a major victory at Kandalur Salai (present-day south Kerala). This battle is commemorated by the well-known phrase “Kandalur Salai Kalam-arutta.”
The engagement appeared to be the result of an effort by the Chola navy or a joint effort by the navy and the army.
The salai was originally owned by the Ay chief, a vassal of Madurai’s Pandya king. The involvement of Chera or Pandya warriors in this battle is unknown.
This battle is sometimes equated with the conquest of Vizhinjam by the general of Rajaraja (mentioned in the Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates).

Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas

Rajaraja’s inscriptions first appear in Kanyakumari district in the 990s, and in Trivandrum district in the early 1000s. Kerala was subjugated by the Cholas in the early 11th century.
Rajaraja’s Senur inscription (1005 CE) states that he destroyed the Pandya capital Madurai and conquered the “haughty kings” of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumal).
Some of these victories in Malainadu may have been won by prince Rajendra Chola for his father.
After defeating the Pandyas, Rajaraja took the title Pandya Kulashani (Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas), and the Pandya country became known as “Rajaraja Mandalam” or “Rajaraja Pandinadu.”
The Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions capturing certain royal Amarabhujanga while describing the Rajaraja’s campaign in trisanku kastha (the south).
The identity of this prince (whether a Pandya prince, a general of the Pandya king, or a Kongu Chera prince) is unknown.
According to Kongu Desa Rajakkal, a Kongu Nadu region chronicle, this general later switched allegiances to Rajaraja and performed the Chola king’s kanakabhisheka ceremony.
Rajaraja assumed the title Mummudi Chola (the Chola Who Wears Three Crowns) after consolidating his rule in the south, a reference to his control over the three ancient Tamil countries of the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras.

Conquest of Sri Lanka

In 993, Rajaraja invaded Sri Lanka, which is known as Ila-mandalam in Chola records.
This invasion most likely occurred during the reign of Mahinda V of Anuradhapura, who, according to the Chulavamsa chronicle, fled to Rohana (Ruhuna) in south-eastern Sri Lanka due to a military uprising.
The Chola army sacked Anuradhapura and took over the northern half of Sri Lanka.
The Cholas established a provincial capital at the military outpost of Polonnaruwa, naming it Jananatha Mangalam after a Rajaraja title.
Tali Kumaran, a Chola official, built a Shiva temple called Rajarajeshvara (Lord of Rajaraja) in the town of Mahatittha (modern Mantota), which was renamed Rajaraja-pura.
Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I finished the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka in 1017. The Cholas ruled Sri Lanka until 1070, when Vijayabahu I defeated and expelled them.

Chalukyan Conflict

Rajaraja conquered the regions of Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi in 998 CE (present day Karnataka).
While conquering and annexing Nolambapadi, Raja Chola extinguished the Nolambas, Ganga’s feudatories. The conquered provinces were originally Rashtrakuta feudatories.
The Rashtrakutas were defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973 CE, resulting in direct conflict with the Cholas.
An inscription from Dharwar describes Irivabedanga Satyashraya as a vassal of the Western Chalukyas and acknowledges the Chola onslaught.
In the same inscription, he accuses Rajendra of arriving with a force of 955,000 and going on a rampage in Donuwara, thereby blurring the Dharmasastras’ moralities of war.
Rajaraja had conquered the Gangavadi province by 1004 CE. The Changalvas, who ruled over the western part of Gangavadi province, and the Kongalvas, who ruled over Kodagu, were made vassals.
The Chola general Panchavan Maraya was rewarded with Arkalgud Yelusuvira-7000 territory and the title Kshatriyasikhamani for defeating the Changalvas in the battle of Ponnasoge.
Rajaraja defeated Jata Choda Bhima, and Saktivarman was installed as a viceroy of the Chola Dynasty on the throne of Vengi. Bhima captured Kanchi in 1001 CE after the Chola army withdrew.
Before re-establishing Saktivarman I on the throne of Vengi, Rajaraja expelled and killed the Andhra king known as Bhima.
Rajaraja married his daughter Kundavai to his next viceroy of Vengi Vimaladitya, bringing the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya Kingdom together and ensuring that Rajaraja’s descendants would rule the Eastern Chalukya Kingdom in the future.

Hoysala Conflict

The Cholas and the Hoysalas, who were vassals of the Western Chalukyas, had clashes.
An inscription from the Gopalakrishna temple in Narasipur dated 1006 records Rajaraja’s general Aprameya assassinating minister Naganna and other Hoysala generals.
A similar inscription in Channapatna describes Rajaraja’s victory over the Hoysalas.