The Age of Homer (circa 1100–800 BCE) marks a pivotal period in Greek civilization, often referred to as the Geometric Period or the Homeric Age. This era followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization and is named after the legendary poet Homer, whose epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, reflect and preserve the cultural, social, and political characteristics of the time. Despite being an age of transition, marked by limited literacy and declining urbanization, this period laid the foundations for the classical Greek civilization that would later dominate the Mediterranean.

Political Organization and Society

The Homeric Age was characterized by the absence of centralized kingdoms like those of the Mycenaean era. Instead, society was organized into small, independent communities, known as oikoi, which were dominated by local chieftains or warrior-aristocrats. These leaders, often referred to as basileis (singular: basileus), wielded authority over small populations based on their military prowess, wealth, and lineage.

Society was highly hierarchical, with a clear division between the aristocracy, who controlled land and resources, and the common people, including farmers, craftsmen, and laborers. At the bottom of the hierarchy were slaves, often war captives, who performed menial labor. The aristocrats displayed their status through feasting, gift-giving, and participation in warfare, which were central to social and political life.

The lack of a unified political structure meant that disputes were often resolved through assemblies of free men, where influential figures debated and reached decisions. These assemblies, precursors to the democratic institutions of classical Greece, emphasized oral communication and persuasion.

Economy and Daily Life

The economy of the Homeric Age was predominantly agrarian, with subsistence farming forming the backbone of daily life. Families cultivated small plots of land to grow grains, olives, and grapes, while livestock like sheep, goats, and cattle were essential for meat, milk, and hides. Trade and exchange, although limited compared to later periods, were facilitated through barter systems, as coinage had not yet been introduced.

Craftsmanship began to revive during this period, with the production of pottery, tools, and weapons. The era is often associated with geometric pottery, characterized by intricate linear designs and motifs, which demonstrate the growing artistic skills of the time. These artifacts also served as grave goods, reflecting the importance of funerary practices.

Religion and Mythology

The religious beliefs of the Homeric Age were deeply rooted in polytheism, with gods and goddesses playing central roles in both personal and communal life. The Homeric epics provide a vivid portrayal of the Greek pantheon, where deities like Zeus, Athena, Apollo, and Poseidon intervened in human affairs, displaying human-like emotions and relationships. These gods were believed to inhabit specific sacred places, such as Mount Olympus or groves, and were worshipped through sacrifices, offerings, and rituals.

Religious practices during this period were not yet centralized, and worship often occurred at local shrines or altars. The role of religion extended beyond spiritual life, influencing politics, morality, and warfare. The belief in divine favor and intervention was a central theme in the epics, shaping the worldview of the people.

Cultural Achievements and the Role of Homer

The cultural identity of the Homeric Age is most vividly preserved in the Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer. These works, composed in an oral tradition and later transcribed, served as both entertainment and education, transmitting values, ethics, and historical memory to subsequent generations.

The Iliad focuses on the Trojan War, emphasizing themes of heroism, honor, and the consequences of human actions. Key characters like Achilles, Hector, and Agamemnon embody the virtues and flaws admired and criticized in Greek society. The Odyssey, on the other hand, narrates the journey of Odysseus as he attempts to return home after the war, exploring themes of resilience, loyalty, and cunning.

These epics not only reflected the values of the time but also reinforced a shared Greek identity, promoting a sense of unity among the fragmented communities. They emphasized the importance of arete (excellence) and kleos (glory), ideals that became central to Greek culture.

Warfare and the Warrior Ethos

The Homeric Age was marked by frequent conflicts and raids, reflecting the instability of the period. Warfare was a key aspect of life, and the ideal of the heroic warrior dominated the social ethos. Homeric heroes were expected to excel in battle, display loyalty to their comrades, and seek personal glory.

The warfare of this period was characterized by small-scale skirmishes rather than large organized battles. Bronze weapons and armor, inherited from the Mycenaean age, were still in use, although iron began to replace bronze toward the end of the period. Chariots, a prominent feature of Mycenaean warfare, were less significant in the Homeric Age, as combat became more focused on individual prowess.

Decline of Literacy and Oral Tradition

One of the most significant features of the Homeric Age was the decline of literacy following the collapse of Mycenaean civilization. The Linear B script, used for administrative records, disappeared, and writing was virtually absent for several centuries. This “Dark Age” of literacy was compensated by the flourishing of oral tradition, which preserved history, mythology, and cultural values through storytelling and poetry.

The oral transmission of the Homeric epics is a testament to the ingenuity and creativity of the people during this period. Skilled bards, known as aoidoi, composed and recited epic tales, adapting them to the context of their audiences. This tradition ensured the survival of Greek cultural heritage until the reintroduction of writing in the 8th century BCE with the adoption of the Phoenician alphabet.

The Dawn of Urbanization and the Polis

Toward the end of the Homeric Age, signs of urbanization and political organization began to emerge. The small, scattered communities gradually coalesced into larger entities, paving the way for the rise of the polis, or city-state. These early city-states laid the groundwork for the political, economic, and cultural developments of the Archaic and Classical periods.

Conclusion

The Age of Homer was a formative period in Greek civilization, characterized by the recovery and adaptation of earlier traditions, the prominence of oral culture, and the establishment of enduring values and institutions. Despite the challenges of this era, including the decline of literacy and political fragmentation, the achievements of the Homeric Age, particularly the epic poetry of Homer, provided a cultural and ideological foundation for the flourishing of Greek civilization in the centuries to come. The ideals of heroism, honor, and excellence that defined this age continue to resonate as timeless aspects of the human experience.

The legacy of ancient Greece on the events of world history and modern culture is profound. The ancient Greek civilization, which emerged around the 8th century BCE, has had a profound and lasting impact on the world. Historians have identified several aspects of the legacy of ancient Greece, including its contributions to philosophy, politics, and art, to its influence on language, science, and religion. In this article, we will take a comprehensive look at the legacy of ancient Greece and the ways in which it continues to shape our world today.

Philosophy and the Legacy of Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was the birthplace of Western philosophy, and the works of its philosophers continue to be studied and discussed to this day. The three greatest philosophers of ancient Greece were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates was known for his method of questioning, known as the Socratic Method, which is still used in modern education. Plato was a student of Socrates and is best known for his dialogues and theory of Forms. Aristotle was a student of Plato and is known for his comprehensive works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, and politics.

Overall, the philosophical insights first established in ancient Greece, laid the foundation for Western philosophical beliefs, which remain important still today.

Politics and the Legacy of Ancient Greece

The political legacy of ancient Greece can be seen in the modern concept of democracy. The ancient Greeks were the first civilization to develop the idea of democracy, and the city-state of Athens is considered to be the birthplace of democracy. In Athens, citizens were directly involved in the governance of the city through the assembly, where laws were debated and passed, and the courts, where citizens could serve as jurors.

Democracy as an ideology has evolved and spread over time, and stands today as the dominant form of governance in the world. For instance, most countries in the world now practise some for of democracy. This is especially true in Western countries, which are founded on the basic principles of democratic governance.  For example, democracy is considered a basic form of government in each of the following nations: Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, and the United States. With that said, many more nations around the world have adopted democratic ideals in their own nations.

Art and Architecture and the Legacy of Ancient Greece

The art and architecture of ancient Greece have had a lasting impact on Western civilization. In particular, the ancient Greeks were known for their amazing sculptures, which were often used to show the ancient Greek gods or the heroes of ancient Greek mythology. For example, famous ancient Greek sculptures include the Winged Victory of Samothrace and the famous statue of Zeus at Olympia. Unfortunately, the Zeus statue at Olympia no longer exists, but it still stands as an amazing accomplishment of art in ancient Greece.

The ancient Greeks were also known for their amazing architecture. The ancient Greeks built a variety of buildings, including temples, theaters, and homes. Greek temples were grand buildings that were built in honor of the gods. They were typically made of marble and were decorated with sculptures and reliefs depicting scenes from Greek mythology. The Parthenon, a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, is considered to be one of the finest examples of ancient Greek architecture and is a symbol of Western civilization.

The art and architecture of ancient Greece both laid a foundation, upon which later civilizations and artist used to build their own works of art.  For instance, Roman art and architecture was heavily inspired by the Ancient Greeks. Also, the ancient Greeks also heavily inspired famous Renaissance artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.

Literature and the Legacy of Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks made significant contributions to the development of the Western alphabet and the study of language. The Greek language has had a lasting impact on the English language, with many words and phrases being borrowed from Greek. The Greeks were also known for their epic poems, such as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, which continue to be read and studied to this day.

Science and Mathematics and the Legacy of Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks made significant contributions to the fields of science and mathematics. The philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras is considered to be the father of numbers, and his theorem is still used in mathematics today. The physician Hippocrates is considered to be the father of medicine, and his works, known as the Hippocratic Corpus, continue to be studied by modern physicians. The philosopher and scientist Aristotle made important contributions to the study of biology and the natural world.

As well, Archimedes also made several important contributions to the fields of science and mathematics in ancient Greece. His works have been studied and built upon by mathematicians and scientists for over two thousand years, and his contributions to mathematics and physics are still relevant and widely used today. He is remembered one of the greatest scientists in ancient Greek history, and his contributions have helped shape the world we live in today.

Religion and the Legacy of Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks had a rich and diverse religious system, with many gods and goddesses, each with their own specific responsibilities. The most important of these gods was Zeus, who was considered to be the king of the gods and the god of the sky. The Greeks also believed in an afterlife, and the myth of Hades and the Underworld was an important part of their religious beliefs. The legacy of ancient Greek mythology can be seen in how it inspired art and artists throughout history. In fact, there are still movies being made today based upon the basic principles and beliefs of ancient Greek religion.

Summary of the Legacy of Ancient Greece

The legacy of ancient Greece continues to shape our world today. From its contributions to philosophy, politics, art, and architecture, to its impact on language, science, and religion, the ancient Greeks left a lasting legacy that has influenced the development of Western civilization. Today, the study of ancient Greece remains an important part of the Western cultural heritage and provides a window into the achievements and intellectual legacy of one of the world’s earliest civilizations.

As soon as the Persian War was over, Athens entered into a period of intense political and cultural activities. Pericles appeared as a bright star in the firmament of Athens.

Like the Gupta age in Ancient India, Elizabethan age in England, Augustus Ceasar’s age in Rome, the age of Pericles in Athens is regarded as the Golden age in the annals of Greek history.

During his reign, the all round development of Athens created a new history in the entire Greek history. In the field of democratic government, art, architecture, literature, education, drama, science and philosophy, the Periclean age left their imprint.

Life of Pericles

Pericles was a descendant of Cleisthenes. His father Xantepas was a man of noble character. Pericles was inspired by the ideals of his father and wanted to sacrifice his life for the sake of his country. His dream was realised when the people of Athens elected him as ‘Strategus’ in 460 B.C. After that upto 429 B.C. he was continuously elected by the people and contributed a lot for the growth of democracy in Athens.

After the death of his wife Aspesia, Pericles lost interest in administration. He suffered from plague and breathed his last in 429 B.C. During his reign from 461 B.C. to 429 B.C. Athens reached the pinnacle of Celebrity. So, that period is known as the ‘Age of Pericles’. The characteristics of the Periclean age have been discussed here.

Direct Democracy

Pericles was determined to give final shape to the democracy in Athens which had begun by Solon and Cleisthenes. He was the real founder of ‘Direct Democracy’ in Athens. He gave chance to all the adults of Athens to take part in direct politics. Of course, slaves, women and foreigners were deprived of that chance.

By that time, there were around 1, 00,000 slaves and 20,000 foreigners in Greece. The number of adults varied between 40,000 and 48,000. Those adults directly took part in the administration of Athens. Some influential women also entered into Politics.

Among those ladies, Aspesia, the wife of Pericles was the foremost. There were three organs in Athenian democracy, viz. the ‘Legislature’, ‘Judiciary’ and ‘Executive’.

The ‘Legislature’ consisted of ‘Ecclesia’ and ‘Council of Five Hundreds’. All adults of Athens were its members. They assembled in an open field and took decision concerning war, peace and other important works. At least, the legislature met three times in a year. During that time, the citizens who participated in the proceedings were supplied with food and allowance.

The ‘Council of Five Hundred’ was competent to frame law regarding the administration of the State. The office of the Archon was declared open to all citizens and carried a salary. Members of the Council of Five Hundred and Archons were to be chosen by lot. So that every citizen would set a fair chance to take part in administration.

The ‘Judiciary’ was fully active to impart justice to the people. Justices were elected by Ecclesia. The Juries heard both the parties. The accused pleaded his case. Of course, speeches were criteria for him by the lawyer. At last the judge declared his verdict. The culprit was punished.

Pericles was the first man to introduce the practice of paying remuneration to the guides. The noble aim behind this was to make the judges happy so that they will be impartial while delivering justice. Thus, Pericles offered Judiciary at the hands of citizens. Everybody was equal before law.

The ‘Executive’ consisted of ten members. They were known as ‘Strategus’. They were either Generals or rulers. They enjoyed power to give concrete shape to the laws laid down by the Legislature. Every year they were elected. Pericles himself was a Strategus. Each and every Strategus worked for the people with a sense of dedication. The popularity of Pericles could keep him in this post till his death.

Architecture and Sculpture

The age of Pericles was remarkable in the field of Architecture and Sculpture. The architects and sculptors of that age have immortalised their name by building many cities, palaces, houses, temples, theatres and gymnasiums. Elegance, balance and beauty were the hallmarks of Greek Architecture. After the departure of the Persians, Pericles tried to rebuild Athens.

In order to save Athens from foreign invasion, he built two ‘Long walls’ which ran eight miles from the city of Athens to its harbour; masons of that period were perfect in building pillars and passing marble. During the reign of Pericles, the temple of Parthenon dedicated to goddess Athena was built on Acropolis. It was made of finest coloured marble and decorated with matchless Sculpture.

This splendid temple was built by architect Ictinus. In that temple stood a 40 feet tall statue of Athena carved in marble and decorated with ivory and gold. The famous Greek Sculptor Pheidias built the statute of Athena. As per the legend, while making the image of Athena, Pheidias fell down and became senseless.

Goddess Athena told Pericles the way by which the sculptor would get back his sense. After regaining his sense Pheidias built an image of Health near goddess Athena. Among other temples, the temple of Zeus at Olympia, Apollo at Delphi and Attemis at Ephesus bear the perfection of Greek architecture.

Almost all towns and villages of Greece had a theatre. Among those, the famous theatre of Dionysias was built under the free sky at Athens. It had sitting arrangement for 15,000 people at a time. In fact, in the field of architecture and sculpture, the age of Pericles was the new torch bearer.

Paintings

The age of Pericles distinguished itself in the field of Painting. The painted pottery of Greece is its graphic examples. Polygnotus was the famous painter of Periclean age. The Greek Paintings of that period were mainly scenes depicting the achievements of gods and heroes. Apollodorus, another famous painter of Periclean age discovered how to give a picture depth by shading. Thus, painting made notable progress during Periclean Age.

Education

Schools were established to impart education to the students of Athens. An Athenian child received education when he attained six years. The children were made efficient in the field of song, mathematics, science, literature, dance, music and so on. By that time appeared in Athens a group of intellectuals known as Sophists. They put emphasis on truth and peaceful life full of bliss.

They moved from place to place and taught dance, music, exercise etc. to the people. Their aim was to make Athens as the abode of learning in the world. They put emphasis on man. That is why Protagoras had said-“Man is the measure of all things”.

The Sophists further preached that the world was being governed by a great power. They denounced gods and goddesses. They had tried their level best to attract the people of Athens towards education.

Drama

The age of Pericles achieved unique distinction in the realm of drama. The Greeks were first to introduce tragedy in drama. During this period there flourished three famous dramatists like Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The famous playwright Aeschylus wrote the drama ‘The Persian’. Here he had depicted the character of the Persian Emperor Darius. His another drama was ‘Pramethious Bound’.

The famous plays of Sophocles were ‘Antigone’ ‘Odipusrex’ and ‘Electra’. The play of Euripides named ‘Trojan Woman’ had created hue and cry in the world. The Greeks were also the creators of comedies and satires. The plays of Aristophanes like ‘The Frog’, ‘The Cloud’ and ‘Licistra’ were full of comedy and satire.

Poetry

The age of Pericles was also famous for poetry. Pindar was a famous lyric poet of that period. After learning music and song from Thebes, he had come to Athens where he stayed and composed poems which made him famous in the world. Sofo was the first lady poet of the world who belonged to the age of Pericles. Thus, poetry attained the pinnacle of celebrity during Periclean age.

History

Greece is regarded as the cradle of history writing. Herodotus, the great historian of Periclean age is regarded as the ‘Father of History’. He described the war which took place between Greece and Persia. He himself remained present in the battle field of Salamis and wrote about it.

Thucydides was another great historian of that period. He wrote about the Peloponnesian War which took place between Sparta and Athens. Xenophon and Plutarch were two other historians of that time. The Greeks were thus, the pioneers of historiography.

Science

The age of Pericles also made notable strides in the field of science. This age was famous for the progress of arithmetic, geometry and astrology. Euclid excelled in the field of geometry and that is why he is called as ‘Father of Geometry’. Pythagoras also achieved proficiency in the field of geometry. Even today the ‘Pythagoras Theorum’ is famous in the world.

Hippocrates opined that every disease has some natural cause and those were not caused by evil spirits. He further told that proper diet and medicines could cure a person and not magic or charms. That is why he is regarded as the ‘Father of Medicine’. Hiparccas, Aristarcas and Arastosthenes were other scientists of the Periclean age.

Philosophy

The age of Pericles also achieved unparalleled distinction in the field of Philosophy and Metaphysical thought. Socrates was a great philosopher of that period. He is regarded as the ‘Father of Western Philosophy’. He was born in 469 B.C. He has not left anything in the form of book. He stood in any public place of Athenes and taught his idea to the common people.

He wanted to dispell the superstitions from the mind of the people by argument. He did not fear anybody and advised people to accept truth. Many youths were inspired by his speech. He was accused for spoiling the youths. The juries of Athens convicted him for that and ordered death penalty. He drank poison with pleasure and breathed his last in 399 B.C.

One of the greatest disciples of Socrates was Plato (427 B.C. to 347 B.C.). The death of his teacher Socrates perturbed him. So, he left Athens. Later on, he again returned and established Academy (School). He taught politics to his disciples. Among his books, the ‘Republic’ was the best.

In this book he has focused on the functions of an ideal state. He has also described the scenes during the death of Socrates through ‘Dialogue’ in his book ‘Faido’. This ‘dialogue’ later on influenced Karl Marx, another great philosopher of the world. ‘Apology’ was his another great work. His disciple Aristotle earned fame in later period.

The other eminent philosophers of this period were Thales, Heraclitus and Anaxagoras. Thales opined that “Water was the root of Creation”. Heraclitus advocated the theory that the life in nature consists of a struggle of opposite forces and fire is the most active element. Anaxagoras held the view that all things are formed from atoms. All these philosophers made periclean age glorious due to their contributions.

In fact, the age of Pericles created several mile stones in Greek history. The peace, progress and prosperity of that age made it distinct. The all round development of that period led historians to call ‘Periclean Age’ as the ‘Golden Age’ in Greek history.

The Greeks made profound and enduring contributions to the fields of religion and philosophy, shaping not only their own civilization but also influencing the broader cultural and intellectual development of the Western world. Greek achievements in these areas were marked by a unique blend of mythological traditions, rational inquiry, and the pursuit of universal truths, reflecting their commitment to understanding the mysteries of existence, morality, and the cosmos.

Greek Religion: A Fusion of Mythology and Rituals

The religious practices of the Greeks were deeply embedded in their culture and daily life. Greek religion was polytheistic, centered around a pantheon of gods and goddesses who were believed to embody natural forces and human characteristics. The major deities, collectively referred to as the Olympian gods, included Zeus (the king of gods and ruler of the sky), Hera (the goddess of marriage), Poseidon (the god of the sea), Athena (the goddess of wisdom), Apollo (the god of light and music), and Artemis (the goddess of the hunt). These deities were worshipped in grand temples, and their stories were immortalized in myths and epics, which explained natural phenomena, human emotions, and historical events.

Religious rituals were essential for maintaining harmony between humans and the divine. These included sacrifices, offerings, and festivals, often held at temples and sanctuaries. Major sanctuaries like Delphi, dedicated to Apollo, and Olympia, associated with Zeus, became important religious and cultural hubs. The Oracle of Delphi was particularly significant, as it was believed to provide divine guidance on political and personal matters.

Festivals such as the Olympic Games had both religious and social significance. These games were held in honor of Zeus and showcased the ideals of physical excellence and competition, which were central to Greek culture. Similarly, the Panathenaic Festival celebrated Athena, the patron goddess of Athens, through processions, sacrifices, and artistic performances.

Greek religion also emphasized the concept of hubris and nemesis, teaching that excessive pride or arrogance (hubris) would inevitably lead to divine retribution (nemesis). This moral framework was reflected in Greek tragedies, where the downfall of characters often resulted from their defiance of the gods.

Transition to Rational Inquiry: The Birth of Greek Philosophy

While religion dominated early Greek thought, the development of philosophy marked a significant intellectual evolution. Greek philosophy emerged in the 6th century BCE, as thinkers sought to explain the world through reason and observation rather than relying solely on mythology and divine intervention. This shift laid the foundation for Western philosophy and scientific inquiry.

The Pre-Socratic Thinkers

The Pre-Socratic philosophers were the pioneers of Greek philosophy. These early thinkers, such as Thales, Anaximander, and Heraclitus, focused on understanding the natural world and the principles underlying it. Thales, often regarded as the first philosopher, proposed that water was the fundamental substance of all things, emphasizing the search for a single, unifying principle. Anaximander introduced the concept of the “apeiron” (the infinite or boundless) as the source of all existence, while Heraclitus famously stated that “change is the only constant”, highlighting the dynamic nature of reality.

The Pre-Socratics also explored cosmology, mathematics, and metaphysics, challenging traditional religious explanations with rational theories. Pythagoras, for example, combined mathematics with spiritual ideas, proposing that numbers held the key to understanding the universe.

The Classical Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

The Classical period of Greek philosophy witnessed the emergence of its most influential figures: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

• Socrates (469–399 BCE) revolutionized philosophy with his emphasis on ethics and moral reasoning. Rejecting the relativism of the Sophists, Socrates advocated the pursuit of truth and virtue through dialogue and critical questioning, a method now known as the Socratic method. He believed that self-knowledge and intellectual inquiry were essential for living a virtuous life. Despite his contributions, Socrates was condemned to death for allegedly corrupting the youth of Athens and disrespecting the gods, making his life a testament to the tension between traditional religion and rational thought.

• Plato (427–347 BCE), a student of Socrates, expanded upon his mentor’s ideas and established the Academy, one of the earliest institutions of higher learning. Plato’s philosophy centered on the theory of Forms, positing that the material world is a shadow of a higher, immutable reality. In his works, such as The Republic, Plato explored themes of justice, governance, and the ideal state, advocating a society led by philosopher-kings. His metaphysical and epistemological ideas profoundly influenced subsequent thought in both religion and philosophy.

• Aristotle (384–322 BCE), a student of Plato, emphasized empirical observation and logical analysis. He rejected Plato’s theory of Forms, instead focusing on the study of the natural world and categorizing knowledge into various disciplines, including biology, ethics, politics, and metaphysics. Aristotle’s concept of the “Golden Mean” advocated moderation in all aspects of life, while his political theories, outlined in Politics, examined the roles of citizens and governments. Aristotle’s works provided the framework for medieval scholasticism and continued to influence philosophy and science for centuries.

Religion and Philosophy: A Dynamic Interplay

The relationship between Greek religion and philosophy was complex and dynamic. While early philosophers often challenged traditional religious views, they did not entirely reject the existence of divine forces. For instance, Anaxagoras introduced the concept of a rational mind (nous) as the organizing principle of the cosmos, blending philosophical inquiry with a sense of divine purpose. Similarly, Plato’s Forms and Aristotle’s Prime Mover incorporated metaphysical ideas that resonated with religious beliefs.

Philosophy also influenced Greek religious practices by encouraging ethical reflection and the development of personal morality. This shift is evident in the rise of mystery religions, such as the Eleusinian Mysteries and the Orphic cults, which emphasized individual salvation, spiritual purification, and the afterlife. These cults reflected a growing philosophical interest in the nature of the soul and its destiny beyond death.

Legacy of Greek Achievements in Religion and Philosophy

The achievements of the Greeks in religion and philosophy created a lasting intellectual and spiritual legacy. Greek mythology and religious practices influenced Roman and later Western religious traditions, while the philosophical works of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle became foundational texts for subsequent generations of thinkers.

In the medieval period, Greek philosophy, particularly the works of Aristotle, was integrated into Christian theology by scholars like Thomas Aquinas, blending faith with reason. The Renaissance saw a revival of classical Greek ideas, inspiring advancements in art, science, and political thought.

Greek religion and philosophy also introduced enduring questions about the nature of existence, ethics, and the divine, shaping the way humanity approaches these fundamental issues. Their achievements remain a testament to their quest for knowledge, truth, and understanding, laying the groundwork for the intellectual and cultural developments of the modern world.

Greek literature dates back from the ancient Greek literature, beginning in 800 BC, to the modern Greek literature of today.

Ancient Greek literature was written in an Ancient Greek dialect, literature ranges from the oldest surviving written works until works from approximately the fifth century AD. This time period is divided into the Preclassical, Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman periods. Preclassical Greek literature primarily revolved around myths and include the works of Homer; the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Classical period saw the dawn of drama and history. Three philosophers are especially notable: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. During the Roman era, significant contributions were made in a variety of subjects, including history, philosophy, and the sciences.

Byzantine literature, the literature of the Byzantine Empire, was written in Atticizing, Medieval and early Modern Greek. Chronicles, distinct from historics, arose in this period. Encyclopedias also flourished in this period.

Modern Greek literature is written in common Modern Greek. The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is one of the most significant works from this time period. Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios are two of the most notable figures.

Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in Ancient Greek dialects. These works range from the oldest surviving written works in the Greek language until works from the fifth century AD. The Greek language arose from the proto-Indo-European language; roughly two-thirds of its words can be derived from various reconstructions of the tongue. A number of alphabets and syllabaries had been used to render Greek, but surviving Greek literature was written in a Phoenician-derived alphabet that arose primarily in Greek Ionia and was fully adopted by Athens by the fifth century BC.

All ancient Greek literature was to some degree oral in nature, and the earliest literature was completely so. The Greeks created poetry before making use of writing for literary purposes. Poems created in the Preclassical period were meant to be sung or recited (writing was little known before the 7th century BC). Most poems focused on myths, legends that were part folktale and part religion. Tragedies and comedies emerged around 600 BC.

At the beginning of Greek literature stand the works of Homer; the Iliad and the Odyssey. Though dates of composition vary, these works were fixed around 800 BC or after. Another significant figure was the poet Hesiod. His two surviving works are Works and Days and Theogony.

During the classical period, many of the genres of western literature became more prominent. Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy; histories, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, and philosophical treatises all arose in this period.

The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar. Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during this time period, only a limited number of plays survived. These plays are authored by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.

The comedy arose from a ritual in honor of Dionysus. These plays were full of obscenity, abuse, and insult. The surviving plays by Aristophanes are a treasure trove of comic presentation.

Two influential historians of this age are Herodotus and Thucydides. A third historian, Xenophon, wrote “Hellenica,” which is considered an extension of Thucydides’s work.

The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century BC was in philosophy. Greek philosophy flourished during the classical period. Of the philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are the most famous.

By 338 BC many of the key Greek cities had been conquered by Philip II of Macedon. Philip II’s son Alexander extended his father’s conquests greatly.

The Hellenistic age is defined as the time between the death of Alexander the Great and the rise of Roman domination. After the 3rd century BC, the Greek colony of Alexandria in northern Egypt became the center of Greek culture.

Greek poetry flourished with significant contributions from Theocritus, Callimachus, and Apollonius of Rhodes. Theocritus, who lived from about 310 to 250 BC, was the creator of pastoral poetry, a type that the Roman Virgil mastered in his Eclogues.

Drama was represented by the New Comedy, of which Menander was the principal exponent.

One of the most valuable contributions of the Hellenistic period was the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament into Greek. This work was done at Alexandria and completed by the end of the 2nd century BC.

Literature in Greek in the Roman period contributed significant works to the subjects of poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. A large proportion of literature from this time period were histories.

Significant historians of the period were Timaeus, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Appian of Alexandria, Arrian, and Plutarch. The period of time they cover extends from late in the 4th century BC to the 2nd century AD.

Eratosthenes of Alexandria wrote on astronomy and geography, but his work is known mainly from later summaries. The physician Galen pioneered developments in various scientific disciplines including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology. This is also the period in which most of the Ancient Greek novels were written.

The New Testament, written by various authors in varying qualities of Koine Greek, hails from this period. The Gospels and the Epistles of Saint Paul were written in this time period as well.

Byzantine literature combined Greek and Christian civilization on the common foundation of the Roman political system. This type of literature was set in the intellectual and ethnographic atmosphere of the Near East. Byzantine literature possesses four primary cultural elements: Greek, Christian, Roman, and Oriental.

Aside from personal correspondence, the literature of this period was primarily written in the Atticizing style. Some early literature of this period was written in Latin; some of the works from the Latin Empire were written in French.

Chronicles, distinct from historic, arose in this period. Encyclopedias also flourished in this period.

Digenes Akritas is the most famous of the Acritic songs and is often regarded as the only surviving epic poem from the Byzantine Empire. It is considered by some to signal the beginnings of modern Greek literature.