The Government of India Act of 1858, also known as the Act for the Better Government of India, was a landmark piece of legislation passed by the British Parliament that marked a significant shift in Indian governance. It effectively ended the British East India Company’s rule over India and transferred administration to the British Crown. 

The Government of India Act of 1858 established the British Raj, which lasted until India’s independence in 1947. The Act was a response to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, recognising the need for a more direct and centralised form of government.

What is the Government of India Act 1858?

The Government of India Act 1858, passed by the British Parliament on August 2, 1858, transferred authority over India from the East India Company to the British Crown. This shift was proposed due to flaws in the existing governance system, initially by Prime Minister Lord Palmerston. After Palmerston’s resignation, Edward Stanley introduced the revised bill titled “An Act for the Better Governance of India.” With this act, the British government took direct control over India, replacing the Company’s rule with a new administrative framework designed to improve governance.

Government of India Act 1858 Background

The Government of India Act 1858 is deeply rooted in the political, economic, and social unrest that sparked the Revolt of 1857. The East India Company, which had been administering India since the mid-18th century, was heavily criticised for its policies, which were perceived as exploitative and oppressive. 

• The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence, exposed the weaknesses of the Company’s rule and demonstrated the need for a more direct and centralised form of governance.
• In response to the revolt and the realisation that the Company was incapable of effectively managing the administration, the British government decided to take direct control of Indian territories. 
• The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act in 1858, also known as the Act for Better Government of India. This act was a watershed moment, reflecting the British determination to restructure Indian governance and prevent similar widespread uprisings from occurring in the future.

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858 marked the transfer of power in India from the British East India Company to the British Crown. The proclamation, issued on November 1, 1858, sought to establish direct governance by the British monarch and ensured the British Crown’s sovereignty over India. 

• It promised to respect Indian princes’ rights, avoid interference in religious matters, and abolish the Doctrine of Lapse. 
• The proclamation aimed to stabilise British rule following the 1857 rebellion by ensuring the protection of Indian states and granting Indian subjects equal rights under British law.

Government of India Act 1858 Provisions

The Government of India Act of 1858 was enacted following the Revolt of 1857. The Act for the Good Government of India abolished the East India Company and introduced several key provisions to reorganise the governance of India:

• Transfer of Power: The Government of India Act of 1858 transferred the East India Company’s powers, territories, and revenues to the British Crown, effectively ending the Company’s rule in India.
  • The act vested the British Crown with direct control over the Indian territories, with the monarch represented by the Governor-General of India. 
  • The Governor-General was also given the title of Viceroy, reflecting the Crown’s direct authority.
• Establishment of Secretary of State for India: The Government of India Act of 1858 established the position of Secretary of State for India, a member of the British Cabinet in charge of Indian affairs.
  • A 15-member Council of India was also formed to assist the Secretary of State. The initiative and final decision were to be with the Secretary of State, and the council was to be advisory.
  • He was also the point of contact between the British government in Britain and the Indian administration. He also had the authority to send secret communications to India without consulting his council.
• Governor-General and Viceroy: The Governor-General of India was appointed Viceroy, acting as the Crown’s representative in India. Lord Canning became the first Viceroy under the new system.
• Abolishment of Dual Government: The Government of India Act of 1858 abolished the Board of Control and the Court of Directors, effectively ending the double government system.
• Reorganisation of Indian Civil Services: The Government of India Act 1858 established the Indian Civil Services (ICS), which were open to Indians via competitive examinations. 
• Expansion of Legislative Councils: The Government of India Act 1858 expanded the powers of legislative councils. It enabled the establishment of legislative councils at the provincial level, where laws could be enacted, amended, or repealed. These councils consisted of both official and non-official members.
  • However, Indian representation was limited and did not accurately reflect the Indian population. The majority of the members were British officials.
• Military Reforms: The Act of 1858 brought the Indian Army under the direct control of the British Crown, with the Commander-in-Chief of India being subordinate to the Governor-General.
• Princely States: It was decided that the remaining Indian princes and chiefs (over 560 in number) would retain their independence as long as they accepted British rule.

Government of India Act 1858 Significance

The Government of India Act 1858 was crucial in reshaping India’s governance and transitioning power from the East India Company to the British Crown. The Act was significant for several reasons:

• Direct Rule of British: The Government of India Act of 1858 centralised India’s administration, placing it directly under the control of the British Government. This marked the start of the British Raj, a period of direct colonial rule that continued until 1947.
• End of Company Rule: The Government of India Act 1858 ended the rule of the East India Company, which had served as the primary agent of British imperialism in India for over a century. This shift marked a significant reorganisation of colonial governance.
  • This Act also abolished the dual governance system envisioned by Pitt’s India Act of 1784, declaring India a direct British colony.
• Foundation for Future Reforms: The Government of India Act of 1858 paved the way for future legislative reforms in India, including the subsequent Government of India Act of 1935, which increased Indian representation in government.

Government of India Act 1858 Limitations

While the Government of India Act 1858 introduced significant changes in India’s governance, it had notable limitations that hindered meaningful Indian participation and maintained the colonial power structure.

• Lack of Indian Representation: The Government of India Act 1858 did not provide for any meaningful representation of Indians in the new administrative structures. The governance of India remained firmly in British hands, with little input from Indian leaders.
• Centralisation of Power: The Government of India Act of 1858 centralised power within the British government, reducing the autonomy of Indian provinces and restricting their capacity for self-governance.
• Continuation of Colonial Exploitation: While the Government of India Act of 1858 reorganised the administration, it did not address the root causes of the Revolt of 1857, which were economic exploitation and social inequality. The British Crown maintained policies favouring imperial interests over the welfare of the Indian people.
• Failed Reforms: The Government of India Act of 1858 failed to create a comprehensive constitutional framework for India, resulting in ambiguous legal and administrative guidelines.
  • For example, the act instituted some reforms in the Indian Civil Services, but it did not significantly increase opportunities for Indians to advance to higher administrative positions.

The Government of India Act of 1858 marked a pivotal shift to direct British rule in India, centralizing power under the Crown and introducing major administrative reforms. However, it failed to address critical issues like Indian representation and ongoing colonial exploitation. Despite its limitations, the act established the British Raj, laying the groundwork for future reforms and, ultimately, Indian independence.

Emergence of Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 under the leadership of A.O. Hume. Originally known as the Indian Nation Union, the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885 was not a coincidence. It emerged as a result of a political awakening process that began in the 1860s and 1870s, culminating in the late 1870s and early 1880s. 

This process experienced a significant turning point in 1885 when modern political thinkers, who saw themselves as champions of the nation’s interests rather than specific interest groups, witnessed the fruition of their efforts. They formed a nationalist organization that operated on a pan-Indian scale, serving as a platform, coordinator, focal point, and representation of the emerging national politics.

History

• The Indian National Congress was founded by 72 delegates on December 28, 1885, at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Mumbai (then Bombay). It was created by former Indian Civil Services Officer Allan Octavian Hume. The Congress was established to foster a climate that would allow for polite dialogue between Indians and the British.
• Only educated Indians were invited to the Congress. Through the Congress, the British could gain support for their rule in India. This was made feasible because educated Indians were more receptive to modernization concepts and could therefore influence other Indians. The General Secretary of the Congress was Allan Octavian Hume, and the President of the Congress was Womesh Chunder Banerjee.

Foundation

• The foundation for the establishment of a pan-Indian organization began to take shape in the late 1870s and early 1880s. A.O. Hume, a retired English civil official, played a crucial role in crystallizing this idea by seeking the assistance of prominent intellectuals of that era.
• To hold the inaugural session, Hume obtained permission from Lord Dufferin, who was the viceroy of India at the time. However, due to a cholera outbreak in Poona, the original location, the session was moved to Bombay. In 1883, Hume expressed his desire to create an organization that would represent educated Indians and advocate for increased participation in government. He conveyed this intention through an open letter addressed to graduates of Calcutta University.
• An important milestone in the history of the Indian National Congress was the participation of Kadambini Ganguly, the first woman to graduate from Calcutta University. In 1890, she delivered a speech at the Congress, highlighting the commitment of the freedom movement to ensuring equal rights and opportunities for Indian women in public life.

Feature

• The Indian National Congress (INC) was the first nationwide political movement in India, initially focused on promoting Indian participation in governmental affairs. However, its objective later evolved to strive for complete independence from British rule. After India gained independence, the INC transformed into a prominent political force within the country. In its early stages, the INC followed a moderate approach, employing constitutional means and discourse as its primary tactics.
• During this period, the party’s demands were limited to advocating for increased representation of Indians in the armed services and government, without explicitly discussing independence. Over time, the party’s demands and strategies became more radical.
• By 1905, clear divisions had emerged within the party. The more recent faction, known as the extremists, employed more radical tactics, while the long-standing moderates pursued a more restrained approach. Alongside the Indian National Congress, provincial conferences, associations, newspapers, and literature also played significant roles in the nationalist movement.

Objective

• The primary objective of the Indian National Congress (INC) was to promote and enhance Indian participation in governmental affairs. As the country’s first large-scale political movement, the INC aimed to establish friendly connections among nationalist political activists from different regions of the nation. It sought to foster a sense of national unity that transcended barriers of caste, religion, and province.
• The INC had multiple goals, including the compilation and submission of a list of general demands to the government. Additionally, the organization aimed to organize and shape public opinion across the country. It actively worked towards creating and promoting an anti-colonial nationalist ideology while upholding a strong sense of national unity among all citizens, irrespective of their religious, caste, or provincial identities.

Role of A. O Hume

• A.O. Hume played a significant role in the establishment and early years of the Indian National Congress (INC). While the idea for an all-India congress was discussed by a small group before Hume’s involvement, it is believed that his Indian Union, which he founded after leaving the Civil Service, contributed to the formation of the Congress.
• Hume, the son of British radical activist Joseph Hume, inherited his father’s political beliefs and initially had an interest in European revolutionary groups. He began his career with the East India Company in 1849 and was stationed in the Northwestern Provinces of India. During his time there, he developed an interest in initiatives aimed at promoting education, addressing social issues, and advancing agriculture. Hume even launched a newspaper in 1861 to raise awareness about political and social matters among the residents of Etawah.
• Hume’s pro-Indian stance and his efforts to improve Indian welfare were not appreciated by other British commanders. In 1870, he became Secretary to the Government of India, but his opinions led Viceroy Northbrook to threaten his dismissal. Hume’s strained relationship with Lord Lytton further led to his demotion in 1879, and he eventually left the civil service in 1882.
• After settling in Shimla, Hume developed a strong interest in Indian politics. He felt a closer connection to the Bombay and Poona factions of Indian leaders rather than those in Calcutta, such as Surendranath Banerjee and Narendra Nath Sen. Hume also acquainted himself with Viceroy Lord Ripon and became interested in his plan for local self-government.
• Overall, A.O. Hume’s background, experiences, and passion for Indian politics contributed significantly to his role as one of the key figures behind the formation of the Indian National Congress.

Foundation Theories

• There are several theories surrounding the foundation of the Indian National Congress (INC). Here are three prominent theories:

Safety Valve Theory (Lala Lajpat Rai)

• According to this theory, proposed by Lala Lajpat Rai, it is speculated that A.O. Hume, a retired English civil officer, established the INC as a means to address the growing discontent and unrest against British rule. It is suggested that Viceroy Dufferin may have suggested the idea of an annual gathering of intelligent Indians for political discussions. However, there is no concrete evidence to support the claim that Dufferin influenced the formation of the INC or that it was intended as a “safety valve” to vent out frustrations.

Conspiracy Theory (R.P. Dutt)

• The conspiracy theory, put forth by Marxist historian R.P. Dutt, suggests that the INC was a scheme orchestrated by bourgeois leaders to suppress a potential uprising of the Indian people. According to this theory, the INC was formed as a deliberate strategy to control and manipulate the nationalist movement.

Lightning Conductor Theory (G.K. Gokhale)

• G.K. Gokhale proposed the Lightning Conductor Theory, which posits that politically aware Indians wanted to establish a national organization to voice their political and economic aspirations. However, if they had attempted to create such an organization independently, the authorities would have strongly opposed it and likely suppressed its existence. Therefore, the early leaders of the INC utilized A.O. Hume as a “lightning conductor” or catalyst to unite patriotic forces and provide a platform for their political aspirations, albeit under the guise of a “safety valve.”
• It is important to note that these theories offer different perspectives on the motives and circumstances surrounding the establishment of the Indian National Congress. The accuracy and validity of each theory may vary, and further research and analysis are necessary to ascertain the true factors that contributed to the foundation of the INC.

Moderate Group

The period between 1885 and 1905 is commonly referred to as the Moderate Phase, led by moderate leaders. During this time, influential figures like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjea, and S.N. Banerjee held prominent positions in Congress and shaped its policies. These leaders were strong advocates of “liberalism” and pursued moderate political approaches. They were known as Moderates to differentiate them from the extremists who emerged in the early twentieth century. The emergence of Indian nationalism in the late 19th century was influenced by various factors such as the spread of Western education, socio-religious reforms, British policies, and other contributing elements.

Features

• During the Moderate Phase, which took place between 1885 and 1905, the Early Nationalists, commonly known as the Moderates, emerged as a significant group of political leaders in India, marking the beginning of the organized national movement. Two prominent moderate leaders were Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji.
• The Moderates consisted primarily of educated middle-class professionals, including lawyers, teachers, and government officials, many of whom had received their education in England. Their political activities followed a constitutional approach, focusing on lawful agitation and demonstrating a gradual and orderly political progression.
• The Moderates held the belief that the British authorities genuinely intended to be fair to the Indians but lacked awareness of the actual conditions in India. They believed that by shaping public opinion within the country and presenting public demands through resolutions, petitions, meetings, and other means, the authorities would gradually meet these demands.
• To achieve their objectives, the Moderates employed a two-pronged strategy. Firstly, they aimed to create strong public opinion to awaken consciousness and foster national spirit among the people. They also worked towards educating and uniting individuals on common political issues. Secondly, they sought to persuade the British government and public opinion to implement reforms in India in line with the nationalist agenda.
• In 1899, a British committee of the Indian National Congress was established in London, serving as its representative body. Dadabhai Naoroji played a significant role in advocating for India’s cause on international platforms, dedicating a considerable portion of his life and resources to this endeavour.
• Although there were plans to hold a session of the Indian National Congress in London in 1892, the proposal was postponed due to the British elections in 1891 and was subsequently not revived.

Objectives

• The objectives of the Moderate Phase during the late 19th and early 20th century in India were as follows:
• Establish a democratic, nationalist movement: The Moderates aimed to create a movement that would advocate for the rights and aspirations of the Indian people within a democratic framework.
• Politicize and politically educate people: The Moderates sought to raise political awareness among the Indian population, particularly the educated middle class, and educate them about their rights and responsibilities as citizens.
• Establish a movement’s headquarters: The Moderates aimed to establish a central headquarters or organization that would serve as a platform for coordinating and directing nationalist activities throughout the country.
• Promote friendly relations among nationalist political workers: The Moderates emphasized the importance of fostering friendly relationships and cooperation among nationalist political workers from different regions of India, with the goal of creating a unified front against colonial rule.
• Create and spread an anti-colonial nationalist ideology: The Moderates aimed to develop and propagate an ideology that emphasized the need to oppose and challenge British colonial rule in India.
• Formulate and present popular demands to the government: The Moderates believed in formulating popular demands related to economic and political reforms, which would serve as a rallying point to unite the Indian people behind a common agenda. These demands would be presented to the government for consideration.
• Develop and consolidate a sense of national unity: The Moderates worked towards fostering a sense of national unity among people of all religions, castes, and provinces in India. They aimed to transcend divisions and create a shared identity based on the idea of Indian nationhood.
• Promote and cultivate Indian nationhood with care: The Moderates recognized the importance of nurturing and preserving the concept of Indian nationhood, paying attention to its development and ensuring its growth in a thoughtful and deliberate manner.

Important Leaders

• The Moderate Phase of the Indian national movement was characterized by the leadership of several prominent figures. Here are some important leaders from that period:
• Dadabhai Naoroji: Often referred to as the “Grand Old Man of India,” he was the first Indian to be elected to the British House of Commons. Naoroji authored the influential book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India,’ which highlighted the economic drain caused by British policies in India.
• Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee: He served as the first president of the Indian National Congress (INC). Bonnerjee, a lawyer by profession, was also the first Indian to serve as Standing Counsel.
• G. Subramania Aiyer: He founded the newspaper ‘The Hindu,’ through which he criticized British imperialism. Aiyer also established the Tamil newspaper ‘Swadesamitran’ and was a co-founder of the Madras Mahajana Sabha.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Gokhale was an influential leader and political mentor to Mahatma Gandhi. He founded the Servants of India Society, which aimed to promote social and political reforms in the country.
• Surendranath Banerjee: Known as ‘Rashtraguru’ and ‘Indian Burke,’ Banerjee founded the Indian National Association, which later merged with the INC. He was also associated with the Bengalee newspaper. Banerjee faced racial discrimination when he was fired from the Indian Civil Service.
• Other notable moderate leaders include Rash Behari Ghosh, R.C. Dutt, M.G. Ranade, Pherozeshah Mehta, P.R. Naidu, Madan Mohan Malaviya, P. Ananda Charlu, and William Wedderburn. These leaders played significant roles in advocating for India’s rights and pushing for political and social reforms during the Moderate Phase.

The method used by the Moderates

• The Moderates employed several methods to advance their objectives during the Moderate Phase of the Indian national movement. Here are some of the key approaches they used:
• Reform Demands and Criticism: The Moderates articulated reform demands and openly criticized government policies. They highlighted the need for social, economic, and political reforms in India.
• Emphasis on Patience and Reconciliation: The Moderates believed in peaceful and non-violent methods. They prioritized patience and reconciliation over violent confrontations, seeking to resolve issues through dialogue and negotiation.
• Constitutional and Peaceful Means: The Moderates relied on constitutional and peaceful means to achieve their goals. They adhered to legal frameworks and advocated for reforms within the existing system.
• Education and Political Consciousness: The Moderates placed great emphasis on educating people and raising their political consciousness. They aimed to inform and engage the public on matters of national importance, fostering a sense of political awareness among the masses.
• Formation of Public Opinion: The Moderates organized lectures and discussions in different parts of India and England to shape public opinion. They utilized platforms to generate awareness and garner support for their cause. The publication of the weekly journal ‘India’ aimed at disseminating information among the British people.
• Criticism through Newspapers and Journals: The Moderates utilized various newspapers and journals to criticize government policies and advocate for reforms. Publications like the Bengali newspaper, Bombay Chronicle, Hindustan Times, Induprakash, Rast Goftar, and the weekly journal India were utilized to voice their concerns and perspectives.
• Advocacy for Government Investigation: The Moderates called for government investigations into the problems faced by the people and sought viable solutions to address these issues.
• Organizing Meetings and Discussions: The Moderates regularly held meetings and discussions to address social, economic, and cultural issues. These gatherings took place in various locations, including England, Mumbai, Allahabad, Pune, and Calcutta, among others.
• By employing these methods, the Moderates sought to create awareness, mobilize public support, and influence policy-making in their pursuit of reform and progress for

Contributions of Moderate Nationalists

• Economic Critique of British Imperialism 
  • The Moderate Nationalists made significant contributions to the Indian national movement. Here are some key areas where they made their mark:
• Economic Critique of British Imperialism: Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha, and others critically examined the political economy of British rule in India. They put forth the “drain theory,” which explained the British exploitation of India’s resources and advocated against the conversion of India’s self-sufficient economy into a colonial one. They created public opinion that British rule was the primary cause of India’s poverty and economic backwardness. They called for an end to economic dependence on Britain, the development of an independent Indian economy, and the involvement of Indian capital and enterprise.
• Demands for Economic Reforms: The Moderate Nationalists demanded various economic reforms to alleviate the deprivation in India. They called for a reduction in inland revenue, the abolition of the salt tax, better working conditions for plantation labourers, and a decrease in military spending, among other measures. Their economic demands aimed to address the exploitative practices and policies of British imperialism in India.
• Advocacy for Constitutional Reforms: Despite limited official power, the Moderate Nationalists actively participated in India’s legislative councils, which were established by the Indian Councils Act (1861). They used these platforms to push for constitutional reforms and to advance the cause of the national movement. While the councils were initially designed as impotent bodies, the work done by the nationalists within them helped in the growth of the national movement.
• Council Expansion and Reform: From 1885 to 1892, the Moderate Nationalists focused on demands for council expansion and reform. They called for greater participation of Indians in the councils and sought more powers for the councils, particularly in terms of control over finances. These demands aimed to increase Indian representation and influence in the decision-making processes of the colonial administration.
• By highlighting the economic exploitation under British rule, advocating for economic reforms, and pushing for constitutional changes, the Moderate Nationalists played a crucial role in shaping public opinion, mobilizing support, and laying the foundation for the broader Indian national movement.

Campaign for General Administrative Reform

• The Moderate Nationalists campaigned for general administrative reform in India, advocating for various changes and improvements. Here are the key grounds on which they campaigned:
• Indianisation of Government Service: The Moderates argued for the inclusion of Indians in government services. They highlighted the economic benefits of employing Indians, as British civil servants received high salaries and remitted a significant portion of their earnings out of India, leading to an economic drain on national resources. They also emphasized the political and moral aspects, arguing that excluding Indians from positions of power was discriminatory and unjust.
• Separation of Judicial and Executive Powers: The Moderates criticized the existing system where the judicial and executive powers were not clearly separated. They advocated for the separation of these powers to ensure a more efficient and impartial administration of justice.
• Criticism of Bureaucracy and Judicial System: The Moderates voiced concerns about the oppressive and tyrannical nature of the bureaucracy. They highlighted the bureaucratic inefficiencies and the time-consuming judicial system, calling for reforms to make these systems more responsive, transparent, and accessible.
• Opposition to Aggressive Foreign Policy: The Moderates criticized the aggressive foreign policy of the British government, which resulted in actions such as the annexation of Burma, the invasion of Afghanistan, and the suppression of tribals in the North West. They argued for a more restrained and just approach to dealing with foreign affairs.
• Increased Spending on Welfare and Development: The Moderates advocated for increased government spending on welfare measures such as health and sanitation, education (particularly elementary and technical education), irrigation works, agricultural improvements, and the establishment of agricultural banks for cultivators. They emphasized the need to prioritize social and economic development to improve the conditions of the Indian population.
• Protection of Indian Laborers in British Colonies: The Moderates raised concerns about the mistreatment and racial discrimination faced by Indian labourers in other British colonies. They called for better treatment and protection of the rights of Indian labourers, highlighting the need for fair and just treatment regardless of their location.
• Through their campaign for general administrative reform, the Moderate Nationalists aimed to address systemic issues, improve governance, and protect the interests and well-being of the Indian population.

Protection of Civil Rights

• The Moderate Nationalists actively advocated for the protection of civil rights in their fight for freedom and independence. They recognized the importance of fundamental rights such as freedom of expression, thought, association, and the press. Here are some key points related to their efforts:
• Spread of Democratic Ideas: The Moderate Nationalists embarked on a continuous campaign to promote modern democratic ideals among the Indian population. They aimed to raise awareness and consciousness about civil rights and the principles of democracy.
• Integration of Civil Rights in the Freedom Struggle: As the national movement progressed, the defence of civil rights became an integral part of the struggle for freedom. The Moderate Nationalists understood that the preservation of civil liberties was crucial in challenging colonial oppression and establishing a just and democratic society.
• Outrage over Arrests and Deportation: The arrest of prominent leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and several journalists in 1897, as well as the arrest and deportation of the Natu brothers without a trial, sparked widespread public outrage. These incidents highlighted the violation of civil rights by the colonial authorities and further fueled the demand for their protection.
• The Moderate Nationalists fought to safeguard civil rights as they recognized their significance in ensuring individual freedoms, promoting democratic values, and challenging oppressive colonial policies.

Achievements of the Moderates

• The Moderate Nationalists made significant achievements in their pursuit of constitutional reforms and political representation. Here are the key accomplishments of the Moderates:
• Indian Councils Act of 1892: The Moderates’ demands for constitutional reform were partially met through the Indian Councils Act of 1892. This act increased the number of members in the Imperial Legislative Councils and Provincial Legislative Councils, allowing for greater Indian representation.
• Expansion of Legislative Councils: The act granted additional responsibilities to the Legislative Councils, such as the ability to engage in budget debates and question the executive. This expansion of their role gave Indian representatives a platform to voice their concerns and participate in the decision-making process.
• Implementation of Indirect Elections: The Indian Councils Act introduced indirect elections (nominations) in both the central and provincial legislative councils. While not fully elected, these nominations allowed for some Indian representation in the councils.
• Demand for Greater Representation and Budget Control: The Moderates, during Congress sessions, criticized the limited scope of the reforms. They demanded a majority of elected Indians in the councils and sought control over the budget. They argued that elected representatives should have the ability to vote on and amend the budget, emphasizing the principle of “No taxation without representation.”
• The achievements of the Moderates in securing constitutional reforms and expanding representation laid the foundation for further advancements in the Indian national movement. While they faced limitations and continued to advocate for more substantial changes, their efforts marked an important step forward in the struggle for political rights and self-governance.

Limitations of the Moderates

• The Moderate Nationalists had certain limitations in their approach and goals within the national movement. Here are some key limitations:
• Limited Mass Involvement: The Moderate Nationalists were predominantly composed of educated elites, such as lawyers, teachers, and government officials. They did not actively seek or prioritize the involvement of the masses in their movement. Unlike leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, who emphasized mass participation and mobilization, the Moderates relied more on intellectual and bureaucratic approaches.
• Distanced from the Masses: The Moderates’ attachment to Western political thought and their emphasis on constitutional methods sometimes created a disconnect between them and the broader population. Their intellectual and elite background made it challenging for them to fully connect with and understand the aspirations and struggles of the common people.
• Limited Goal of Autonomy: Unlike more radical and revolutionary factions within the national movement, the Moderates did not aim for complete independence from British rule. They were content with achieving dominion status, which would grant increased autonomy and self-rule while still being within the British Empire. This more moderate stance may have limited their ability to rally broader support for complete independence.
• It is important to note that these limitations should be understood in the context of the specific time and circumstances in which the Moderate Phase operated. While they had their constraints, the Moderates played a significant role in laying the foundation for the subsequent stages of the Indian national movement.

Evaluation of Early Nationalist

• The evaluation of the Early Nationalists, also known as the Moderates, can be seen in the following light:
• Progressive Forces: The Early Nationalists represented the most progressive forces in India during their time. They advocated for constitutional reforms, civil rights, and economic independence from British imperialism. Their ideas and actions were instrumental in shaping the early stages of the national movement.
• National Awakening: The Moderates played a significant role in creating a widespread national awakening among Indians. They emphasized the need for unity and a sense of belonging to one nation, uniting people across regions, religions, and castes in the common struggle against colonial rule.
• Political Education and Modern Ideas: The Moderates actively worked to educate people about politics and popularize modern ideas. They played a crucial role in raising political consciousness and spreading awareness among the masses.
• Exposing Exploitative Colonial Rule: The Moderates effectively exposed the exploitative nature of colonial rule in India. They highlighted the economic drain and social injustices caused by British policies, undermining the moral foundations of colonialism.
• Realistic and Grounded Approach: The political work of the Moderates was based on hard realities rather than shallow sentiments or religious factors. They focused on practical reforms and gradual progress within the existing system, aiming to govern India in the interests of Indians.
• Foundation for a Mass-Based Movement: The Moderates laid the groundwork for a more vigorous and mass-based national movement that would follow in the years ahead. Their efforts provided a foundation for future leaders and organizations to mobilize the masses and broaden the struggle for independence.
• Limitations in Broadening the Base: One of the criticisms of the Moderates is their limited ability to broaden their democratic base and expand the scope of their demands. They primarily represented the educated elite and did not actively engage or involve the larger masses in the movement.
• In conclusion, the Early Nationalists, or Moderates, played a crucial role in the Indian national movement. They brought progressive ideas, created national awakenings, exposed colonial exploitation, and laid the groundwork for future mass-based movements. However, their limitations in broadening their base and expanding demands are also acknowledged.

Conclusion

• In conclusion, the Moderate Phase of the Indian national movement, led by the Early Nationalists, made significant contributions to the struggle for independence. They believed in peaceful and constitutional methods, seeking to transform colonial rule into a form of national rule that would be in India’s best interests. However, their approach was limited by their reliance on the educated elite and their hesitation to challenge British rule directly.
• While the Moderates were not able to achieve widespread mass participation and lacked radical political positions, their efforts were instrumental in creating a sense of Indian nationalism and raising awareness about the exploitative nature of the colonial rule. They fought for the interests of the emerging Indian nation and laid the foundation for future nationalists who would adopt more militant and mass-based approaches in the struggle against colonialism.
• The Moderates played a significant role in shaping the early stages of the national movement, and their contributions should be recognized in the broader context of India’s journey towards independence.

INTRODUCTION

In the world of today,local government may be said to be a part of the five-tier system of government.The concept of local government is as old kings and kingdoms. There were many kingdoms with excellent local governmentswith the emergence of sovereign states,local governments at the bottom of administrative hierarchy attained significance.Modern states are huge in size. As a result it created a wide gap between state and the masses.The local governments have provided people at the local level to express their grievances and settle it the local level itself.Inbrief,the sole purpose of local government is to solve local level.The following are the definitions of the local self government: Encyclopedia Britanica: “Local government is one where in fixed territory decisions are taken and implemented”, J.J. Clarke: “Local government is a part of national government which looks after the administrative needs of the people of a particular area” Harris: “Local government is a system of government in which living in a particular locality have a responsibility and raise money for their expenditure”

The Panchayat Raj System in India dates back to times of Ramayana and Mahabharata. Kautilya’s “Arthashatrs”and the Megasthanese “Indica” makes areference to panchayat system in India. Ancient India the Gupta village administration was on the whole organized, both at the Centre and the provinces. Gramika was the head of the village but in addition to him there were other officials known as Dutas or messenger,s imakaras or boundary-makers,herds-men, kartri, Lekhaka(scribes), Dandika (Chastiser). Reference is also made to the Parishad or the village assembly, V.D.Mahajan, History of India (from beginning to 1526AD,Pp 271). The Cholas village administration set up highly efficient system of administration. The development of village autonomy was the most unique feature of the Chola administrative system. The two records of Parantaka I (800AD inscription  Manur, Uttiramerur, refers to village kudavolai system) contained resolution passed by the local mahasabha on the constitution Variyam or Executive Committes. Each of the 30 wards of the village was to nominate selectioned persons possessing  certain qualifications.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT-A BRITISH CREATION

Although local government existed in India in ancient times, in its present structure and style of functioning, it owes existence to the British rule in India. Neither the system of village self-government that prevailed in earlier times,nor the methord of town government which was then in existencevisualized the type of periodically elected representative government responsible to the electorate that had evolved in the west and was planted in India by the British government. “Local self government in India, in the sense of a representative organization, responsible to a body electors, enjoying wide powers of administration and taxation, and funtionning both as a school of training in responsibility and as a vital link in the chain of organisms that make up the government of the country, is  British creation.

REGULATING ACT OF 1773

The earlist efforts in municipal Government in India were made in the Presidency towns of Madras,Calcutta and Bombay. In 1687, an order of the Courtof Directors directed the formation of a Corporation of European and Indian members of the city of Madras. However, the Corporation did not survie.Under the Regulating Act of 1773 the Gorvernor-General nominated the servants of the Company and other British inhabitants, to be the Justice of Peace, to appoints for the cleaning and repairing of the street of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.

In the year 1817 and 1830,spasmodic attempts were made in Madras and Calcutta to undertake works paid out of the lottery funds and much was done with this money in laying out these towns.  In1840, an Act widened and in 1841 an Act was passed for Madras. These Act widened  the purpose for which the municipalassessment was to be utilized.  The inhabitants of the towns were given control over the assessment and collection of taxes. There was no response from the public. In 1845 an Act was passerine for Bombay. This Act concentrated the administrative powers in the hands  of a conservancy Board on which were two European an three Indian Justice,with the senior Magistrate of Police as Chairman. The first Act deals with the conservancy and improvement of the Presidency towns. The second act provided for the better assessment and collection of rats. Special Acts were passed for the appointment of the commissioners in each town. In the CalcuttaAct 1856,special provisions were made for gas lighting and the construction of sewers.In the Bombay Act of 1858,power was given to levydues.

NON-PRESIDENCY TOWNS

Outside the Presidency towns there was practically no attempt at municipal legislation before 1842. An Act was passed in that year in Bengal, but it practically remaned a dead lefter another Act was passed in 1850 which applied to the whole of British India . Under this Act and subsequent provincial Act, large number of municipalities were set up in allprovinces. In most provinces, the commissioners were nominated and from the point of view of self-government,these Acts did not go far enough.

MAYO’S RESOLUTION OF 1870

It was only after 1870 that real progress was made in direction of local-self government. Lord Mayo’s government in their Resolution of 1870 dealing with decentralization of finance, referred to the necessity of talking further steps to bring local interests and supervision to bear on the management of funds  devoted to educatin, sanitation, public works, etc. New municipal Acts were passed in the various provinces between 1871 and 1874. The Acts extended the elective priniciple. The results of the policy of 1870 were described in the Resolution of the Local self-government,1882,thus considerable progress  haad been made since 1870.  A large income from local rates and cesses had been secured, and some provinces the management of the income had been freely entrusted to local bodies.

RIPON’S RESOLUTION OF 1881

The next step was taken during the viceroyality of Lord Ripon who has been rightly called the father of Local Self-government in India. His resolution on Local Self-government is a great landmark in the growth of Local Self-government in the country. After pointing out the beneficial effects on the local finance of the resolution of 1870,the resolution of 1881 stated that the Governor-General of India thought time had come when further steps should be taken todevelop the idea of Lord Mayo’s Government. It was asserted that agreements with the provincial Government regarding finance should not ignore the question of Local Self-revenues to the local bodies.

RESOLUTION OF 1882

In this Resolution of Lord Ripon took special pains to make it clear that the expansion of the system of Local Self-government. Would not bring about a change for the better from the point of view of efficiency in municipal administration.

Lord Ripon’s resolution enunciated the following principles which were henceforth to inform and guide local government in India:
1. Local bodies should have mostly elected non-governmental members and chairman.
2. The state control over local bodies should be indirect rather than direct.
3. These bodies must be endowed with adequate financial resources to carry out their functions.To thi end,certain sources of local revenue should be made available to the local bodies which should also receive suitable grants from the provincial budget.
4.  Local government personnel should operate under the administrative control of the local bodies. The government personnel who are deputed to the local government must be treated as employees of the localg government and subject to  government its control.
5.  The resolution of 1882 should be interpreted by the provincial government according to the local conditions prevalent in provinces.
Another significant stage in the history 0f local government was the publication in 1909 of the report of  Royal commission upon Decentralization, set up in 1906. It made the following principal recommendations:
1.    The village should be regarded as the basic unit of local self-government institutions and every village should be constituted in urban areas.
2.    There should be a subatantial majority of elected members in the local bodies.
3.    The municipality should elect its own president,but the district collecter should continue to be the president of the district local board.
4.    Municipalities should be given the necessary authority to determine the taxes and to prepare their budgets after keeping a minimum reserve fund.Thegovernment shouldgive grants for public works like water-supply,drainagescheme,etc.
5.    The bigger cities should have the services of full-time nominated officer.Local bodies should enjoys full control over their employees subject,of course to certain safe-guards for the security of services.

INDIA ISSUED THE RESOLUTION REAFFIRMING 1918

In 1918 the object of self government is to train the people in the managementof their own local affairs and the political education of this sort must in the main take precedence over consideration of departmental efficiency. It follows from this that local bodies should be as representative as possible of the people whose affairs they are called upon to administer, that their authority in  the matter entrusted should be real and not nominal and that they should not be subjected to un-nessarycontrol, should learn mistakes and profiting bt them.

The resolution contained the following:
1.    Panchayats should be vevied in the villages.
2.    local bodies should contain a large elective msjority.
3.    local government should be made broad-based by suitably extending the franchise.
4.    The president of the local body should be a member of the public and elected,rather than nominated.
5.    Local should be allowed freedom in the preparation of the budget,theimposion of taxes and sanction of works.

THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1935

The  diarchic system of government at the provincial level was replaced by provincial autonomy.  The national movement for independence was also reaching new proportions. With the growing strength of the national movement in India ceased to be a mere experimental station of self-government The central provinces set up on enquiry committee in 1935, the united provinces in 1938, and Bombay in 1939. Although the recommendations of the municipal enquiry committees were unevently carried out in various provinces, there was a definite trend towards democratization of local government by further lowering of the franchise and abolition of system of nominations, and secondly by the separation of deliberative functions from excutive ones.

CENTRAL PROVINCES SHEME OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

An account of local government of this period should contain a description of the scheme of local government formulated originally in 1937 and implemented, in a modified form, in 1948, the central provinces. The architect of this scheme was D.P. Mishra who was the minister of local self-government at time. This scheme was a bold,even revolutionary attempt at the reconstraction of local government in the provinces. It to do away with one stroke the duality of the administrative system-one district administration and another, local government with its two independent entities of rural government and urban local  government.

After independent India the janapada scheme was impliemented in 1948. Despite its  shortcoming it had a historical role play in the evolution of local government in the Central Provinces. The local government committee, set up in 1957, by Madya Pradesh, observed in its report submitted in 1958. We have, asresult, people available with experience of work of local bodies to man new bodies. We have also a body of people who are accustomed to pay taxes,organize special development or welfare activities and carry out generally other works of public utility: forinstance, it is through their agency that wells are constructed in each district on public participation basis. In the new setup of the three-tier system that we are now proposing, use could be made with great benefit of the people so experienced particularly at the block level institutions.

CONCLUSION

Provides that village panchayats should be recorganiesed and more powers should be India became independent in 1947.  Article 40 of the constitution of India given to them so that they can function successfully as units of self-government. Panchayat Raj were passed in many States with a view to give ms core power to village Panchayats.  The panchayat is subjected to a wide-ranging system of direction,control and regulation by the state government.The state government has the power to delimit and alter its jurisdiction, to effect mergemenr, and even to extonguishit. It is control over the panchayat extends to almost every aspect of its work, suchas, appointment of staff, records management,financial administration, election etc,

Indian Councils Act of 1892 was passed with the objective of increasing the size of legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India. Following the foundation of the Indian National Congress, the Indian Councils Act of 1892 represents a significant milestone in India’s constitutional and political history.

Historical Background

• Following the Great Revolt of 1857, British realised that it needed to ensure the help of its Indian subjects in administering India.
• In addition, as nationalism grew in popularity, Indians became more cognizant of their rights.
• Following the founding of the Indian National Congress, the Indian Councils Act of 1892 represents a significant milestone in India’s constitutional and political history.
• After the Act of 1861, the growth of the Indian Constitution is essentially a story of political discontent and agitation interspersed with Council Reforms.
• The reforms that were reluctantly accepted were always found to be insufficient, resulting in dissatisfaction and a demand for more reforms.
• During the 1885-1889,as a result of the growing nationalism, the Indiana National Congress raised several demands through its sessions.

The following were the main demands:

• An ICS test was to be held simultaneously in England and India.
• Expansion of the Legislative Councils, including the adoption of the election-in-place-of-nomination basis.
• Opposition to Upper Burma’s annexation.
• Military spending should be reduced
• Ability to have previously forbidden financial chats.

Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy at the time, convened a commission to investigate the situation. On the other side, the Secretary of State opposed the idea of a direct election. However, he agreed to indirect electoral representation.

Objective

Increase in the size of various legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India.

Key Provisions

• It raised the number of (non-official) members in the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils while keeping the official majority.
  • Bombay – 8
  • Madras – 20
  • Bengal – 20
  • North Western Province -15
  • Oudh – 15
  • Central Legislative Council minimum – 10, maximum 16
• The Act made it clear that the members appointed to the council were not there as representatives of any Indian body, but as nominees of the Governor-General.
• Members could now debate the budget without voting right. They were also barred from asking follow-up questions.
• The elected members were permitted to discuss official and internal matters.
• The Governor General in Council was given the authority to set rules for member nomination, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State for India.
• To elect members of the councils, an indirect election system was implemented.
• Members of provincial councils could be recommended by universities, district boards, municipalities, zamindars, and chambers of commerce.
• Provincial legislative councils were given more powers, including the ability to propose new laws or repeal old ones with the Governor General’s assent.

Significance

• It was the first step toward a representative system of government in contemporary India.
• The number of Indians increased, which was a good thing.
• Despite the fact that Indians did not have the power to veto the majority, their opinions were heard.
• The principle of election, which was accepted in 1892, allowed non-officials to have a free and open discussion on the government’s financial strategy. As a result, the administration had an opportunity to clear up misconceptions and respond to criticism.
• The statute gave members of the council the authority to issue interpellations on subjects of public concern.

Limitations

• Despite being the first step toward a representative government in modern India, this act provided no benefits to the common man.
• This act created the stage for the development of numerous revolutionary forces in India because the British only made a minor concession.
• Many leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, faulted Congress’s moderate strategy of petitions and persuasions for the lack of significant progress and called for a more assertive policy against British rule.

Conclusion

The Indian Councils Act, 1892 is a significant milestone in India’s constitutional and political history. The act increased the size of various legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India. The Indian Councils Act, 1892 was the first step towards the representative government in modern India. The act created the stage for the development of revolutionary forces in India because the British only made a minor concession.

• By the beginning of the twentieth century, a new wave of leaders emerged in the Indian nationalism who were distinct from the earlier Moderate leaders. This group was referred to as Extremists due to their adoption of more radical and assertive methods in their fight against British colonial rule. These Extremist leaders believed that more aggressive tactics were necessary to achieve India’s freedom.
• The Extremist leaders were often younger and more inclined towards direct action and confrontation with the British authorities. They rejected the gradualist approach of the Moderates and instead advocated for more assertive measures to scare away the British from India. Their methods included acts of protest, civil disobedience, and, in some cases, even armed resistance.
• Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, and Rajguru are examples of prominent Extremist leaders who played significant roles in the fight for independence. They became symbols of resistance and sacrificed their lives for the cause.
• The Extremists represented a shift in the tactics and strategies employed in the national movement. While the Moderates sought reforms within the framework of British rule, the Extremists demanded complete independence and were willing to use more forceful means to achieve it.
• It’s important to note that the Extremist phase was a significant development in the trajectory of the Indian national movement. It reflected the growing frustration and impatience among a section of leaders who believed that more radical measures were necessary to challenge British colonialism.

Extremists and the Partition of Bengal

• The partition of Bengal in 1905 by the British government was a significant event that triggered the rise of the Extremist or Radical factions within the Indian National Congress. The decision to partition Bengal was met with widespread opposition and protests from the Indian population, particularly in Bengal. The Extremists emerged as a response to the failure of the Moderate leaders’ attempts to address this issue through constitutional means.
• Leaders such as Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played pivotal roles in this new phase of the national movement. They were labeled as Radicals or Extremists because they believed that more aggressive and militant methods were necessary to challenge British colonialism and achieve India’s independence.
• The Extremists rejected the gradualist approach of the Moderates and advocated for more assertive and forceful means of resistance. They called for boycotts, strikes, and mass protests as methods of challenging British rule. They believed that achieving freedom required strong and uncompromising actions.
• The rise of the Extremists marked a significant shift in the tactics and ideology of the national movement. They brought a more assertive and confrontational approach to the struggle for independence. The partition of Bengal and the British government’s response to it catalyzed this new phase and the emergence of Extremist leaders.

The rise of Extremism in the Indian national movement can be attributed to several key factors:

• Disappointment with Moderate Achievements: The failure of the Moderate leaders to achieve significant results and bring about substantial reforms despite their efforts led to growing disillusionment among Indians. This disappointment fueled the desire for a more assertive and radical approach.
• Economic and Social Hardships: The severe economic conditions during the famine and plague of 1896-97, exacerbated by British policies, deepened the grievances of the Indian population. The hardships experienced by the people further fueled discontent and a desire for more radical action.
• Influence of Global Events: The influence of global events, such as the Russian Revolution and the overthrow of the Czar in 1917, inspired Indian nationalists with the idea of revolutionary change and the possibility of challenging oppressive regimes.
• Impatience and Frustration: The lack of significant progress and the slow pace of reforms under the Moderate leaders led to a sense of impatience and frustration among Indian nationalists. They felt that more radical measures were needed to achieve their goals and secure Indian independence.
• Partition of Bengal: The partition of Bengal in 1905, orchestrated by Lord Curzon, was a major catalyst for the rise of Extremism. It sparked widespread protests and nationalist sentiments, as it was seen as a deliberate attempt to divide and weaken the Indian population.
• National Pride and Cultural Identity: The growing sense of national pride and the revival of Indian cultural identity played a significant role in motivating Indians to take more extreme measures in their struggle against British rule. They resented British attempts to Westernize and undermine Indian culture.
• Inspiration from International Movements: The national movements in other countries, such as Persia, Egypt, and Turkey, inspired Indian nationalists. The success and resilience of these movements against colonial powers served as a source of motivation and solidarity for the Extremist leaders.
• Reaction to British Arrogance: The arrogance displayed by British officials, particularly during the Delhi Durbar, where the plight of the people suffering from famine was ignored, further angered Indians and contributed to the rise of Extremism.
• These factors collectively contributed to the emergence of the Extremists, who sought to adopt more radical and militant methods in their struggle for India’s independence. They believed in the urgency of the cause and were willing to confront the British authorities more aggressively.

Surat Split

• The Surat Split of 1907 was a significant event that highlighted the ideological differences between the Moderates and the Extremists within the Indian National Congress. The split occurred during the Congress session held in Surat, Gujarat. Here are some key points regarding the Surat Split:
  • Leadership Conflict: The main cause of the split was the disagreement over the selection of the Congress president. The Extremists, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, wanted him to be the president, while the Moderates, represented by Rash Behari Ghosh, preferred their candidate. The Moderates used procedural rules to shift the venue to Surat, where they hoped to exclude Tilak from the presidency.
  • Differences in Approach: The Moderates, who advocated for a gradual and constitutional approach towards attaining self-government within the British Empire, aimed to distance the Congress from more radical resolutions such as swadeshi (boycott of foreign goods), boycott movements, and national education. The Extremists, on the other hand, supported more assertive and militant methods in the struggle for independence.
  • Suppression of Voices: During the session, the Moderates prevented Tilak from speaking, which angered the Extremists. This suppression of voices and the refusal to accommodate the demands of the Extremists created further animosity and led to a deadlock.
  • Demand for Boycott: In response to the exclusion of Tilak and the refusal to address their demands, the Extremists demanded a boycott of the Surat Session, leading to a significant division within Congress.
  • Violence and Disruption: The Surat Session witnessed violent clashes and disruptions between the supporters of the Moderates and the Extremists. The session ultimately ended in chaos and the split of the Congress into two factions.
• The Surat Split marked a significant turning point in the Indian national movement, with the division between the Moderates and the Extremists becoming more pronounced. While the Moderates aimed for incremental reforms and cooperation with the British, the Extremists sought a more confrontational and radical approach. Despite the violence and division, the split highlighted the growing frustration and divergence of strategies within Congress as different leaders pursued their visions of achieving independence.

Methods of Extremist Leaders

• The Extremist leaders adopted more assertive and militant methods in their struggle for independence. Here are some key methods employed by the Extremist leaders:
  • Demand for Swaraj: The Extremists aimed for the attainment of “Swaraj,” which meant either complete autonomy and freedom from British rule or a total Indian control over the administration, without necessarily breaking away from the British Empire.
  • Inclusion of a Larger Section of People: The Extremists had a broader reach and involved a larger section of people in the movement, including the lower middle class. They aimed to mobilize and unite the masses in their fight against British rule.
  • Non-Constitutional Methods: Unlike the Moderates, who focused on constitutional means, the Extremists went beyond the traditional methods of protest and made use of strikes, boycotts, burning of foreign goods, and other forms of non-cooperation to challenge British authority.
  • Confrontation: Extremist leaders believed in confrontation rather than persuasion. They openly challenged and opposed British imperialistic policies in India and did not shy away from direct confrontations with the colonial administration.
  • Promotion of the Swadeshi Movement: The Extremists actively supported and promoted the Swadeshi movement, which encouraged the use of indigenous goods and the establishment of Indian banks, mills, factories, etc. This movement aimed to reduce dependence on foreign goods and boost Indian industries.
  • Pride in Indian Culture: Extremists took pride in Indian culture and history. They drew inspiration and courage from ancient Indian scriptures and heroes. They aimed to revive and promote Indian traditions and values, opposing the Westernization of Indian society.
  • Sacrifice and Patriotism: Extremist leaders were willing to sacrifice anything, including their lives, for the cause of the motherland. They instilled a sense of self-respect and patriotism among the masses, citing the bravery and sacrifices of past Indian heroes.
  • Opposition to British Rule: Unlike the Moderates, who sometimes had equivocal positions, the Extremists clearly opposed British rule and showed no loyalty to the British Crown. They viewed the British as the primary obstacle to Indian self-rule.
• The Extremist leaders played a crucial role in mobilizing the masses, promoting self-reliance, and challenging British authority in India. Their methods aimed at achieving a more radical transformation of Indian society and governance, reflecting the growing discontent and desire for complete independence from British rule.

Government Reaction to Extremist

• The British government reacted strongly to the activities and influence of the Extremist leaders. They implemented several laws and took aggressive measures to suppress the Extremist movement. Here are some notable actions taken by the government:
  • Laws to Restrict Activities: The British government passed laws such as the Seditious Meetings Act of 1907, the Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act of 1908, the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908, and the Indian Press Act of 1910. These laws aimed to restrict the activities of the Extremists, curb freedom of speech and assembly and control the press.
  • Imprisonment of Tilak: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, one of the prominent Extremist leaders, was sentenced to imprisonment. He was sent to Mandalay Prison in Burma (now Myanmar) for his alleged support of the revolutionaries involved in the killing of two British women, even though their original target was a British magistrate.
  • Repression and Surveillance: The British government intensified its efforts to suppress the Extremist movement through repression and surveillance. Extremist leaders and their supporters were closely monitored, and any sign of subversive activities was dealt with harshly.
  • Bans on Extremist Literature and Publications: The government imposed strict censorship and bans on Extremist literature and publications. They aimed to control the dissemination of ideas that challenged British rule or promoted anti-colonial sentiments.
  • Use of Police and Security Forces: The British government employed police and security forces to crack down on Extremist activities. Raids, arrests, and crackdowns on public meetings and gatherings were common methods used to suppress the movement.
• These measures reflected the British government’s determination to counter the Extremist movement and maintain its control over India. They sought to restrict the influence and activities of the Extremist leaders and maintain law and order in the face of growing resistance to British rule.

List of Extremist Leaders

• Lala Lajpat Rai: Also known as Punjab Kesari (Lion of Punjab), Lala Lajpat Rai was a prominent Extremist leader from Punjab. He played a crucial role in mobilizing the masses and advocating for Swaraj (self-rule) through radical means.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Bal Gangadhar Tilak was an influential Extremist leader from Bombay (now Mumbai). He strongly advocated for Swaraj and played a significant role in organizing mass movements such as the Ganapati and Shivaji festivals to mobilize people against British rule.
• Bipin Chandra Pal: Bipin Chandra Pal was an Extremist leader from Bengal. He was part of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio along with Lala Lajpat Rai and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He vehemently criticized British policies and advocated for complete independence from colonial rule.
• Aurobindo Ghosh: Aurobindo Ghosh, also known as Sri Aurobindo, was a prominent Extremist leader from Bengal. He was involved in revolutionary activities and played a crucial role in inspiring the youth towards the cause of independence. However, he later turned towards spirituality and became a renowned spiritual philosopher.
• Rajnarayan Bose: Rajnarayan Bose was an Extremist leader and one of the founders of the Indian National Association. He played a significant role in promoting nationalist ideas and organizing public meetings to raise awareness about the need for self-rule.
• A. K. Dutt: Ashwini Dutta was indeed a prominent Indian freedom fighter, philanthropist, educationist, social reformer, and nationalist. He played a significant role in the Indian independence movement and worked towards the betterment of society. His educational achievements and legal background contributed to his activism and leadership in various social and political endeavours.
• V. O. Chidambaram Pillai: V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, also known as V.O.C., was an Extremist leader from Tamil Nadu. He was a lawyer and a prominent figure in the Swadeshi movement. He played a crucial role in promoting indigenous industries and advocating for self-rule.
• These leaders, along with others, played significant roles in the Extremist phase of the Indian independence movement and contributed to the struggle for freedom from British rule.

Impact of Extremist Period

• The Extremist period in the Indian independence movement had a significant impact on society and various aspects of Indian life. Here are some key impacts:
  • Cultural Revival: Extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak emphasized the revival of Indian culture and heritage. Celebrations of festivals like Ganpati Puja and the glorification of historical figures like Shivaji helped instil a sense of pride in Indian traditions and values, countering the influence of Westernization.
  • Popularization of Nationalist Slogans: Tilak’s powerful slogan “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it” resonated with the masses and became a rallying cry for the freedom struggle. It inspired a sense of determination and unity among Indians in their fight against British colonial rule.
  • Boycott Movements: The Extremists promoted boycotts of British goods and institutions, including education. This led to a significant shift in the Indian economy as indigenous industries and products gained prominence, providing employment and economic opportunities for Indians. Boycotts also served as a form of protest against British policies and exploitation.
  • Education Reforms: Extremists focused on reforming the education system to promote nationalism and self-reliance. They advocated for the establishment of national universities that were free from government control, allowing for the development of an education system aligned with Indian values and aspirations.
  • Mobilization of Masses: The Extremist leaders successfully mobilized a larger section of society, including the lower middle class and rural population, into the freedom movement. This broadened the base of the nationalist movement and made it more representative of the aspirations of the masses.
• Overall, the Extremist period brought about significant social and cultural reforms, fostered a sense of national pride and unity, and laid the foundation for a more assertive and militant phase of the Indian independence movement.

Work of the Extremist

• The Extremists were a group of Indian nationalists who emerged in the early 20th century. They were dissatisfied with the moderate approach of the Indian National Congress and advocated for a more militant and aggressive stance against British rule.
• The Extremists believed that India could only achieve independence through a mass movement of the people. They called for boycotts of British goods, strikes, and other forms of civil disobedience. They also revived traditional Indian symbols and festivals in order to generate a sense of national pride and unity.
• Some of the most prominent Extremists included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai. They played a significant role in the Indian independence movement, and their ideas helped to shape the course of the struggle.

Here are some of the specific works of the Extremists:

• Boycott of British goods: The Extremists called for a boycott of British goods to weaken the British economy and pressure them to leave India. They encouraged people to buy Indian-made goods instead of British goods.
• Use of Swadeshi goods: The Extremists also promoted the use of Swadeshi goods or goods that were made in India. They believed that this would help to boost the Indian economy and create jobs.
• Public meetings: The Extremists held public meetings to spread their message and mobilize support for their cause. They spoke at these meetings about the evils of British rule and the need for independence.
• Passive resistance: The Extremists also practiced passive resistance, or refusing to cooperate with the British authorities. This included refusing to pay taxes, boycotting government schools, and refusing to serve in the British army.
• National education: The Extremists also believed that it was important to provide Indians with a national education, one that would instill in them a sense of pride in their country and its culture. They founded schools and colleges that taught Indian history, culture, and languages.
• The work of the Extremists helped to raise awareness of the Indian independence movement and to mobilize support for the cause. They played a significant role in shaping the course of the struggle, and their ideas continue to inspire people today.

Achievements of Extremists

• The achievements of the Extremists during the Indian independence movement were significant and had a lasting impact on the course of the struggle. Some of their key achievements include
  • Demand for Swaraj: The Extremists were the first to boldly demand complete self-rule or Swaraj for India. They advocated for the idea that Indians had the inherent right to govern themselves and should strive for independence from British colonial rule.
  • Mass Mobilization: The Extremists played a crucial role in mobilizing the masses and involving a wider section of society in the freedom struggle. They recognized the importance of grassroots participation and actively worked towards raising awareness and garnering support among the common people.
  • Swadeshi Movement: The Extremists spearheaded the Swadeshi movement, which aimed at boycotting British goods and promoting Indian-made products. This movement had a profound impact on the Indian economy and self-reliance, as it encouraged the development of indigenous industries and the use of local products.
  • Political Organization: The Extremists played a pivotal role in organizing the Indian National Congress on an all-India scale. They worked towards establishing a unified political platform that represented the aspirations and demands of the Indian people. This laid the foundation for a more cohesive and coordinated national movement.
  • Ideological Shift: The Extremists brought about a shift in the ideological direction of the freedom struggle. They advocated for a more assertive and militant approach, emphasizing the need for direct confrontation with British colonialism. This shift in strategy set the stage for future generations of freedom fighters.
  • Inspiring Nationalism: The Extremists played a significant role in fostering a sense of nationalism and pride among the Indian population. Through their speeches, writings, and actions, they instilled a deep sense of patriotism and the belief that Indians deserved freedom and self-determination.
• Overall, the Extremists played a crucial role in shaping the Indian independence movement and laying the groundwork for future struggles. Their demand for Swaraj, mass mobilization efforts, organization of the Swadeshi movement, and ideological shift towards a more assertive approach left a lasting impact on the trajectory of the freedom struggle in India.

• Nationalism in India during the colonial period was indeed a political and cultural movement that sought to promote a sense of national identity and pride among Indians. The economic, social, and political changes brought about by British colonial rule played a significant role in shaping the growth of nationalism.
• The British policies of economic exploitation, land reforms, and the imposition of heavy taxes on Indian goods had a profound impact on the Indian economy and society. These policies led to the disruption of traditional industries, the impoverishment of rural communities, and the displacement of many artisans and craftsmen.
• As a result, a new class of educated Indians emerged, comprising lawyers, professionals, intellectuals, and businessmen. This class became the vanguard of the nationalist movement and played a crucial role in articulating and advocating for nationalist ideas.
• Literature, art, and music became powerful tools for expressing nationalist sentiments. Indian writers, poets, and artists depicted the richness of Indian culture, celebrated its history and traditions, and critiqued the oppressive nature of colonial rule. The works of writers such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, and Sarojini Naidu inspired a sense of pride and nationalism among Indians.
• Furthermore, the growth of nationalism in India was closely tied to the political activities of organizations like the Indian National Congress (INC). The INC, founded in 1885, initially aimed to seek representation for Indians in the colonial administration. However, over time, it became the leading platform for nationalist aspirations and demands for self-rule.
• Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Mahatma Gandhi emerged as prominent figures within the nationalist movement. They advocated for political reforms, civil rights, and eventually, complete independence from British rule.
• The nationalist movement also witnessed various forms of protest and resistance against colonial rule. Boycotts of British goods, mass movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Quit India Movement, and acts of civil disobedience were employed to challenge British authority and assert Indian identity.
• In summary, the economic, social, and political changes brought about by British colonial rule in India led to the emergence of Indian nationalism. It was a response to the challenges and aspirations of the Indian people who sought to assert their identity, protect their culture, and achieve self-determination. The growth of nationalism during this period laid the foundation for India’s eventual independence in 1947.
• The growth of Indian nationalism is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has evolved over the course of several centuries. It is rooted in the aspirations of the Indian people for self-determination, cultural preservation, and political independence. Here are some key factors that have contributed to the growth of Indian nationalism:
  • Colonial Rule: The period of British colonial rule in India (1757-1947) played a significant role in shaping Indian nationalism. The oppressive policies, economic exploitation, cultural alienation, and political subjugation by the British ignited a sense of collective resistance among Indians. The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, became the main platform for nationalist activities.
  • Socio-Religious Reform Movements: The 19th century witnessed the rise of socio-religious reform movements in India, such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj. These movements aimed to challenge social evils, promote education and revive indigenous cultural practices. They also played a crucial role in fostering a sense of pride in Indian heritage and creating a foundation for nationalist sentiments.
  • Role of Intellectuals: Indian intellectuals and thinkers played a vital role in articulating and promoting nationalist ideas. Figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, and Rabindranath Tagore advocated for Indian cultural revival, self-reliance, and political freedom. Their writings and speeches inspired a sense of pride and unity among Indians.
  • Partition of Bengal (1905): The British decision to partition Bengal along religious lines in 1905 sparked widespread protests and nationalist fervour. This event led to mass mobilization, boycotts, and a resurgence of cultural and political consciousness among Indians. The Swadeshi movement, which called for the use of indigenous goods, and the promotion of national education emerged as a powerful tool of resistance.
  • Mahatma Gandhi and Nonviolent Resistance: Mahatma Gandhi emerged as the leader of the Indian National Congress in the early 20th century and became the face of the Indian nationalist movement. He advocated for nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience as a means to challenge British rule. His emphasis on self-reliance, grassroots mobilization, and inclusivity helped galvanize the masses and made the freedom struggle a mass movement.
  • Unity in Diversity: India’s incredible diversity, encompassing various languages, religions, and cultural practices, has also contributed to the growth of Indian nationalism. The idea of “unity in diversity” has been a central theme, emphasizing the need to forge a common identity that transcends regional, linguistic, and religious differences.
  • Impact of World War I and II: The participation of Indian soldiers in World War I and II on behalf of the British Empire had a profound impact on Indian nationalism. The disillusionment and sacrifices made by Indian soldiers, coupled with the contrast between the rhetoric of freedom and the reality of colonial rule, fueled nationalist sentiments and demands for independence.
  • Post-Independence Nation-Building: After India gained independence in 1947, the process of nation-building further strengthened Indian nationalism. Policies promoting secularism, democratic governance, and social justice were enshrined in the Indian Constitution. Efforts to bridge regional and linguistic divides, promote economic development, and protect cultural diversity have contributed to a continued sense of Indian nationalism.
• It is important to note that the growth of Indian nationalism is a complex and ongoing process, and it continues to evolve in response to various social, political, and economic factors.
• For over a century, the British exploited the Indian masses, breeding hatred and animosity toward them. The introduction of Western education opened the eyes of Indians to the British Raj’s colonial rule. Indian nationalism grew as a result of colonial policies and as a reaction to colonial policies. It would be more accurate to view Indian nationalism as the result of a confluence of factors. 

Factors

People United Politically Under the British Rule

• People became politically unified under British hegemony.
• There was one rule, one administrative framework, one set of laws, and one set of administrative officers that unified people politically.
• People became aware that vast India belonged to them, instilling a sense of nationalism in them. 

Communication and Transportation Advancements

• Lord Dalhousie made a lasting contribution to Indians by introducing railways, telegraphs, and a new postal system. Roads were built from one end of the country to the other.
• Even though all of this was intended to serve imperial interests, the people of India capitalized on it. The train compartment mirrored a united India.
• It bridged the gap between them and gave them the sense that they all belonged to this vast India under the control of the British Raj.

Influence of Western Education

• The introduction of English education in 1835 marked a watershed moment in the British administration.
• Its primary goal was to educate the Indian masses so that they would be loyal servants of the British Raj.
• However, as time passed, English-educated Indians became forerunners in India’s sociopolitical, economic, and religious reforms.
• Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Ferozeshah Mehta, Dadabhai Naoroji, and Surendranath Banerjee all fought for liberty, equality, and humanitarianism.
• English-educated Indians gradually became the torchbearers of Indian nationalism, instilling national consciousness in the minds of millions of Indians.

India’s glorious past

• Several avenues in the field of oriental studies were opened up by the nineteenth-century Indian Renaissance.
• Western scholars such as Max Muller, Sir William Jones, Alexander Cunningham, and others translated several ancient Sanskrit texts from this land, establishing the glorious cultural heritage of India before the people.
• Indian scholars such as R.D. Banerjee and R.G. Bhandarkar were inspired by them. Mahan Mukhopadhyaya, Hara Prasad Astir, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and others rediscovered India’s past glory from its history.
• This encouraged the people of India, who felt they were the ancestors of this country’s grand monarchs and were being ruled by foreigners. This fanned the flames of nationalism.

Movements for Socio-Religious Reform

• In the nineteenth century, the socio-religious reform movements led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Annie Besant, Syed Ahmad Khan, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, and Vivekananda brought about a national awakening in India.
• The abolition of Sati and the introduction of widow remarriage resulted in social reforms in India.
• Indians gained an understanding of the concepts of liberty, equality, freedom, and social disparities.
• This reawakened the people’s minds and instilled in them a sense of nationalism.

Growth of Vernacular Literature

• The influence of Western education compelled educated Indians to express the concepts of liberty, freedom, and nationalism through vernacular literature.
• They aimed to incite the masses to oppose British rule by instilling a sense of nationalism in them.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s Anand Math and Dinabandhu Metra’s play Nil Darpan wielded enormous power over the people and instilled anti-British feelings in them.
• The play Baraga Purdahs by Bharatendu Harishchandra reflected the plight of the Indian masses under British rule.
• Aside from several eminent poets and writers in various languages, such as Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali, Vishnu Shari Chipulunkar in Marathi, Laminate Bazbarua in Assamese, Mohammad Husain Azad and Altar Husain Ali in Urdu, their writings helped to rouse nationalism among the local people.

Role of Press

• Newspapers and magazines were critical in instilling a sense of nationalism in Indians.
• Raja Rammohan Roy edited Persian journals such as ‘Mirat-ul-Akhbar’ and the Bengali newspaper ‘Sambad Kaimiudi.’
• Similarly, several newspapers, such as Hindu Patriot, Bangalee, Amrit bazar patrika, Sudharani, and Sanjivani in Bengali; Indu Prakash in Maharashtra, Native Opinion, Kesari, Koh-i-Noor, Akhbar-i-Am and ‘The Tribune’ in Punjab, reflected British rule and aroused feelings of nationalism among people.

The First War of Independence’s Memory

• The memory of the Revolt of 1857 instilled in the Indians a sense of nationalism.
• After becoming aware of the British’s bad intentions, the heroic roles of Rani Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb, Tayta Tope, and other leaders became fresh in the minds of the people.
• This instilled in the people a desire to fight the British.

The Ilbert Bill Controversy

• The Ilbert Bill was passed during Lord Ripon’s tenure as Viceroy. It gave Indian judges the authority to try the Europeans.
• It sparked outrage among Europeans, who pushed for a change in the bill, including a provision requiring an Indian to try a European in the presence of a European witness.
• This exposed the British authorities’ deception and projected their racial animosity.

Antagonism Between Races

• The British considered themselves superior to Indians and never offered them good jobs regardless of their merits or intelligence.
• The Indian Civil Service examination was held in England, and the age limit was 21.
• Aurobindo Ghosh passed the written exam but was disqualified from horseback riding and did not pass the ICS exams. The British purposefully disqualified them.
• They believed that Indians were brown and unfit to rule and that it was the white men’s responsibility to rule them. This inflamed people’s resentment of British rule.

Economic Exploitation

• Britishers economically exploited India by draining wealth from India to Britain, as expressed in Dada Bhai Naoroji’s ‘Drain Theory.’
• Following the Industrial Revolution in England, the British needed raw materials and markets, which were met by draining the raw materials of India and using Indian markets.
• The landlords, guided by Britishers, exploited the Indian masses and further exploited the Indian economy.
• The ‘Drain Theory’ of Dadabhai Naoroji, Ranade, and G.V. Joshi raised awareness about the exploitation of Indian handicrafts, which mirrored the exploitative nature of Britishers toward the Indian economy.
• This ruined India’s factories, handicrafts, and economy, leaving the Indian people impoverished and filled with resentment toward the British.

Formation of the Indian National Congress

• The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. It expressed the Indian people’s desire in front of the British.
• The mass movements and leaders played an important role in the development of people’s national consciousness.
• The Indian National Congress enabled the Indians to wage ideological battles against the British, resulting in India’s independence.
• Moderates such as Dada Bhai Naoroji and S.N. Banerjee, as well as extremists such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, all played important roles in instilling a sense of nationalism in Indians.

Bengal’s Partition (1905)

• Lord Curzon, the British viceroy, was in charge of partitioning Bengal in 1905.
• Since 1765, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa had been united as a single province of British India.
• By 1900, the province had grown too large for a single administration to handle. East Bengal had been overlooked in favor of West Bengal and Bihar due to its isolation and poor communication.
• Partition was opposed by the Hindus of West Bengal, who controlled the majority of Bengal’s commerce, professional, and rural life. They saw the partition as an attempt to suffocate nationalism in Bengal, where it was stronger than elsewhere.
• The Indian National Congress was transformed from a middle-class pressure group into a nationwide mass movement as a result of this.

Bengal’s Swadeshi Movement

• The Swadeshi Movement arose from Bengal’s anti-partition movement.
• The decision escalated the protest meeting, resulting in the passage of a Boycott resolution in a massive meeting held in Calcutta Town Hall, as well as the formal proclamation of the Swadeshi Movement.
• The extremists dominated the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal. They proposed new forms of struggle. The movement primarily advocated a boycott of foreign goods, as well as mass mobilization through public meetings and processions.
• Self-sufficiency, or ‘Atma Shakti,’ as well as Swadeshi education and enterprise, were emphasized.
• Several families remained active to ensure mass participation, and songs written by Rabindranath Tagore, Rajanikanta Sen, Dwijendralal Ray, Mukunda Das, and others inspired the masses in the cultural sphere.
• Soon after, the movement spread to other parts of the country, with Tilak leading in Pune and Bombay, Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh leading in Punjab, Syed Haider Raza leading in Delhi, and Chidambaram Pillai leading in Madras.

Political Associations in the Bengal Presidency

Landholders Society

• Before the establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885, several political associations in India played significant roles in advocating for various reforms and expressing the aspirations of the Indian people. These associations were primarily regional or local in their operations and had specific agendas related to their respective regions. Some of these early political organizations include:
• The Zamindari Association, also known as the Landholders’ Society, was established in 1838 to protect the interests of landlords in Bengal. It was founded by prominent intellectuals such as Bhabani Charan Bandyopadhyay, Dwarkanath Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Radhakanta Deb, and Ramkamal Sen. The association advocated for the implementation of Permanent Settlement across India, which was a land revenue system introduced by the British.
• The Zamindari Association formed close ties with the British India Society in London and managed to secure concessions from the British, such as tax exemptions for temples and lands belonging to Brahmans. It also allowed British citizens in India to become members of the association. The organization aimed to reform the police, judiciary, and revenue departments.
• However, the influence of the Zamindari Association remained primarily limited to Bengal. Its program of Permanent Settlement did not extend to other Indian states, and as a result, its reach and impact were confined to a specific region. Additionally, the association faced a decline in influence after 1842 and eventually closed down in 1850. It merged with the Bengal British India Society to form the British India Association.
• It is important to note that the Zamindari Association focused primarily on the interests of landlords and did not address the issues faced by ordinary people. Its activities were centered on institutional politics and the use of constitutional means for political struggle. While it marked the beginning of organized political activity in India, its scope was limited, and it did not acquire a pan-India character.

Bengal British India Society

• The Bengal British India Society was established in 1843 with the objective of gathering and sharing information about the conditions of the people in British India. It aimed to promote the welfare, rights, and interests of all classes of subjects in India through peaceful and lawful means.
• In 1851, the Landholders’ Society and the Bengal British India Society merged to form the British Indian Association. This merger brought together the interests of landlords and the broader objective of advancing the welfare and rights of the people in British India. The formation of the British Indian Association marked a significant development in the organized political struggle in India during that time.
• The British Indian Association played a crucial role in advocating for the interests of Indians and pushing for reforms. It became one of the predecessors to the Indian National Congress (INC), which was established in 1885. The formation of the British Indian Association laid the foundation for collective political action and paved the way for further organized movements for Indian independence.
• The Bengal British India Society was founded in 1843 by the combined efforts of George Thompson, Dwarkanath Tagore, Chandra Mohan Chatterjee, and Parmananda Maitra.
• It was founded on the advice of George Thompson. He was brought to India from England by Dwarkanath Tagore.
• George Thomas was the Secretary of the British Indian Society.
• It primarily represented the aristocratic class.
• The organization’s main goals were to collect and disseminate information about people’s health and well-being.
• The society, founded in 1843, aimed to ensure the welfare and advancement of all classes while remaining loyal to the British sovereign. It emerged as the second politically inclined public association in British India, following the Zamindari association.
• Unlike the Zamindari Association, which focused solely on the interests of the landed aristocracy, the Bengal British India Society was dominated by Bengal intellectuals, particularly the young Bengal group. These intellectuals, influenced by their Western education and awareness, sought to collect and disseminate information about the conditions of the people of British India.
• The objectives of the Bengal British India Society included advancing the interests of all classes, promoting good citizenship qualities among Indians, urging the government to increase Indian employment in public offices and implement judicial reforms, raising public awareness about governance issues, and working towards the realization of their just rights through peaceful and lawful means while remaining loyal to the British sovereign.
• However, despite its pioneering role in the development of political parties in India, the Bengal British India Society, along with the Zamindari Association, became dormant by 1850 and was unable to achieve significant outcomes.
• Overall, the Bengal British India Society and the Zamindari Association laid the groundwork for organized political movements in India, but their impact was limited in the early stages of the struggle against British imperialism.

British India Association (1851)

• The British India Association formed in 1851 through the merger of the Landholders’ Society and the Bengal British India Society, played a significant role in Indian political activism during that time. The organization was headed by Raja Radhakant Dev as President and Debendranath Tagore as Secretary, and it had several other prominent members.
• The formation of the British India Association was prompted by the opposition of the European community in Bengal to the four bills drafted by Bethune, a law member of the British Government, in 1849. These bills aimed to extend the jurisdiction of the East India Company’s criminal courts over British-born subjects. While the Indian community supported these bills, the European community protested against them, leading to their withdrawal by the government. This incident highlighted the need for a strong political organization to protect Indian interests against organized attacks by Europeans.
• The objectives of the British India Association included petitioning the British Parliament to incorporate their suggestions in the Company’s renewed Charter, advocating for the establishment of a popular legislature, separation of executive and judicial functions, salary reductions for higher officers, and the abolition of the salt duty, abkari, and stamp duties.
• The British India Association was one of the first political associations to bring Indians together. It propagated its ideology through the newspaper “Hindu Patriot,” which had a critical political tone. The association sent a petition to Parliament in 1852, raising grievances and seeking relief, which led to the addition of six members to the governor-general’s council for legislative purposes in the Charter Act of 1853. It worked towards structural changes in local administration and government systems, striving for the greater welfare of Indians.
• However, the British India Association had limitations. It primarily represented the interests of landlords and the upper class, with membership restricted to the wealthy. It focused more on measures that affected their class interests, and its high annual subscription rate drew public criticism. Over time, it became associated with the landed aristocracy and failed to represent the broader political aspirations of the Indian people. There were allegations that the association supported British rule to protect its own interests, as seen in their petition urging the implementation of permanent settlements throughout India.
• The British India Association mainly relied on petitioning authorities and holding occasional public meetings to reinforce its demands. It struggled to meet the aspirations of the growing middle class in Bengal and had limited engagement with the Muslim community, which consisted largely of peasants and had little interest in the association’s activities.
• Overall, the British India Association played a significant role in Indian political activism during its existence, but its limitations and focus on certain class interests hindered its ability to become a popular representative organization and fulfill the broader aspirations of the Indian people.

Indian League (1875)

• The Indian League, founded in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh, played an important role in stimulating nationalism among the people of India and promoting political education. Sisir Kumar Ghosh himself was a prominent Indian journalist, the founder of the Amrita Bazar Patrika newspaper, and a Bengali freedom fighter.
• The Indian League aimed to instill a sense of nationalism among the people and had notable nationalist leaders associated with it, including Ananda Mohan Bose, Durgamohan Das, Nabagopal Mitra, and Surendranath Banerjee.
• Sisir Kumar Ghosh’s Amrita Bazar Patrika, established in 1868, became a powerful medium for expressing national opinions and highlighting the misrule of the British. Ghosh was known for his writings on Lord Chaitanya, a Vaishnavite mystic-saint, and he published “Lord Gauranga or Salvation for All” in 1897. He was also one of the first students to pass Calcutta University’s first entrance examination in 1857.
• The Indian League emerged at a time when the Indian National Movement was gaining broader support and receiving publicity through the press. Ghosh and his progressive colleagues founded the Indian League to represent not only the middle class but also the masses, aiming to stimulate a sense of nationalism among the people.
• In conclusion, the Indian League, founded by Sisir Kumar Ghosh in 1875, played a significant role in promoting nationalism and political education in India. While it was not the first political organization, it contributed to the broader Indian National Movement and laid the foundation for subsequent organizations like the Indian National Association, founded by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose in 1876.

Indian National Association (1876)

• The Indian National Association, also known as the Indian Association of Calcutta, was established in 1876 as one of the earliest nationalist organizations in India. It was founded by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose, initially under the name Bharat Sabha. The association played a significant role in the political awakening and mobilization of Indians toward the goal of independence.
• The Indian National Association aimed to promote various legitimate means for the advancement of the Indian people, including political, intellectual, and material aspects. It sought to build a strong public opinion on political issues and unite Indians behind a common political agenda. The organization attracted various nationalist leaders, including Anand Mohan Bose, Durga Mohan Das, Nabagopal Mitra, and Surendranath Banerjee.
• The association emerged during a period of growing political consciousness and the rise of political associations and national movements for independence in India. Before the Indian National Association, the India League was founded in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Sambhu Charan Mukherjee, aiming to represent the middle class and foster a sense of nationalism. However, the India League eventually disbanded, leading to the formation of the Indian Association by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose.
• The Indian National Association had several distinctive features. It represented the interests of the middle class and worked to promote a sense of nationalism among the people. The organization emphasized political unity among the educated middle class and aimed to create a strong body of public opinion in the country. It also advocated for the unity of Indian races and peoples based on common political interests and aspirations. The association promoted brotherhood between Hindus and Muslims and made efforts to include the masses in the political movement.
• The Indian National Association campaigned on various issues, including the removal of the age limit for candidates in the Indian Civil Service examination, the Indianization of higher administrative positions, and the repeal of repressive acts such as the Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act. It established branches in different towns and cities across Bengal and beyond, and its membership fee was kept low to attract members from the poorer sections of society.
• In 1886, the Indian National Association merged with the Indian National Congress, another prominent nationalist organization. The association played a crucial role in laying the foundation for the Indian National Congress and its subsequent activities in the Indian independence movement.

• The Act of Parliament in 1858, known as the Government of India Act 1858, transferred the power to govern India from the East India Company to the British Crown. Under this act, the authority over India was exercised by a Secretary of State for India, who was a member of the British Cabinet and responsible to Parliament. The Secretary of State was aided by a Council, initially known as the India Council, which was later reconstituted as the Council of India.
• The Act established that the ultimate power over India remained with the British Parliament. The Governor-General of India, who was also given the title of Viceroy as the Crown’s representative, continued to carry out the government’s functions. However, with time, the Viceroy’s role was increasingly reduced to a subordinate status about the British government, both in policy-making and policy execution.
• The Act also brought about changes in the composition and functioning of the Council. Initially, the Council consisted of retired British-Indian officials, but by 1869, it was completely subordinated to the Secretary of State. The Secretary of State had control over the minutest details of administration and could constantly monitor and direct the government’s activities through improved communication systems like the submarine cable.
• It is important to note that no Indian had a voice in the India Council, the British Cabinet, or the British Parliament. Indian opinion had little impact on government policy, while British industrialists, merchants, and bankers gained influence over the Government of India.
• The Act of 1858 also expanded the Governor-General’s Council to include additional members for lawmaking purposes, known as the Imperial Legislative Council. However, this council had limited powers and served as an advisory body rather than a true legislative institution. It could not discuss important measures or financial matters without prior approval from the government. The Legislative Council had no control over the budget or the executive, and bills passed by the council required the approval of the Governor-General and could be disallowed by the Secretary of State.
• The Indian members of the Legislative Council were few and were nominated by the Governor-General, often comprising princes, zamindars, merchants, or retired senior government officials. They were not elected by the Indian people, further limiting the representation of Indian interests in the legislative process.

Provincial Administration

• During British colonial rule, India was divided into provinces for administrative convenience. The three major provinces, Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, were known as Presidencies and were administered by a Governor and his three Executive Councils appointed by the Crown. These Presidencies had more rights and powers compared to the other provinces.
• The remaining provinces were administered by Lieutenant Governors and Chief Commissioners who were appointed by the Governor-General. However, with the enactment of the Act of 1861, there was a shift towards decentralization. It was mandated that legislative councils, similar to the central legislative council, be established in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal, followed by other provinces.
• The provincial legislative councils, like their central counterpart, were advisory bodies consisting of officials and a small number of non-official Indians and Englishmen. However, they lacked the powers and democratic representation of a true parliament.
• One of the major issues resulting from extreme centralization was related to finances. Under the centralized system, revenues from all over the country and from various sources were collected at the center and then distributed to the provincial governments. The Central Government exercised strict control over provincial expenditure, but this system proved inefficient in practice. The central government found it difficult to supervise revenue collection by the provincial governments or effectively monitor their expenditure.
• Constant disagreements arose between the central and provincial governments over minute administrative and financial details. Moreover, the provincial governments had no incentive to be economical in their expenditure. Recognizing these challenges, steps were taken to decentralize public finance.
• In 1870, Lord Mayo initiated the first step by separating central and provincial finances. Fixed sums from central revenues were allocated to provincial governments for specific services such as Police, Jails, Education, Medical Services, and Roads, which the provinces could administer as they saw fit. Lord Lytton further expanded this scheme in 1877, transferring additional heads of expenditure such as Land Revenue, Excise, General Administration, and Law and Justice to the provinces.
• To meet the additional expenditure, provincial governments were entitled to a fixed share of the income realized from specific revenue sources within their province, such as Stamps, Excise Taxes, and Income Tax.
• In 1882, Lord Ripon introduced further changes. The system of fixed grants to the provinces was ended, and instead, a province was entitled to the entire income from certain sources of revenue within its jurisdiction, as well as a fixed share of the overall income. All revenue sources were categorized into three heads: General, Provincial, and those to be divided between the central and provincial governments.
• The financial arrangements between the center and the provinces were subject to review every five years to ensure their effectiveness and appropriateness.

Local Bodies

• Due to financial difficulties and the need for decentralization, the British government attempted to promote local government through the establishment of municipalities and district boards. However, the initial local bodies formed between 1864 and 1868 were predominantly composed of nominated members and were presided over by District Magistrates.
• These local bodies did not truly represent local self-government, nor were they accepted as such by the Indian population. Instead, they were seen as mechanisms for imposing additional taxes on the people. The lack of genuine representation and democratic processes undermined their legitimacy.
• In 1882, the Lord Ripon Government introduced a policy to administer local affairs through rural and urban local bodies, with a majority of non-official members. The intention was to gradually introduce elections wherever feasible, allowing the people to elect non-official members. The resolution also allowed for the election of a non-official as Chairman of a local body.
• Provincial acts were passed to implement this policy, but elected members remained a minority in district boards and many municipalities. Moreover, the right to vote was restricted to a small number of individuals, further limiting the democratic nature of these bodies.
• District officials continued to serve as presidents of district boards, although non-officials gradually assumed the role of chairmen of municipal committees. The government maintained strict control over the activities of the local bodies and retained the power to suspend or supersede them at its discretion.
• As a result, the local bodies operated more like government departments rather than genuine examples of local self-government. They lacked autonomy and were subject to significant control and interference from the colonial administration.

Change in Army

• After the transfer of power to the British Crown in 1858, significant reorganization took place in the Indian army, primarily aimed at preventing another revolt like the one that occurred in 1857. The British rulers recognized the importance of maintaining control over the army as a means to secure their rule.

To minimize the potential for Indian soldiers to revolt, several measures were implemented:

• The dominance of the European branch of the army was ensured. The proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was increased and fixed, with ratios of one European to two Indians in the Bengal Army and two Europeans to five Indians in the Madras and Bombay armies.
• European troops were strategically placed in key military and geographical positions. Important branches of the army, such as artillery, and later tanks and armored corps, were exclusively manned by Europeans.
• The policy of excluding Indians from the officer corps was strictly maintained. Until 1914, no Indian could rise above the rank of subedar.
• The organization of the Indian section of the army followed a policy of “balance and counterpoise” or “divide and rule.” Discrimination based on caste, region, and religion was practiced during recruitment. Indians were categorized into “martial” and “non-martial” classes, with certain regions and communities deemed non-martial and excluded from significant recruitment.
• Communal, caste, tribal, and regional loyalties were encouraged among the soldiers to prevent the growth of nationalist sentiment. The Indian regiments were intentionally mixed with various castes and groups to maintain a balance of power.
• Efforts were made to isolate the army from nationalist ideas. Measures were taken to prevent newspapers, journals, and nationalist publications from reaching the soldiers.
• Despite these attempts to control and manipulate the Indian army, nationalist sentiments eventually spread within its ranks. Over time, sections of the Indian army played significant roles in the struggle for India’s independence. These efforts to suppress nationalist sentiment ultimately proved unsuccessful in the long run.

Public Service

• The Indian Civil Service (ICS) was the highest-ranking civil service in British India, and its members held all positions of power and responsibility in the administration. The ICS was recruited through an annual open competitive examination held in London, but in practice, the doors of the ICS remained barred to Indians for several reasons, including
• The examination was held in London, which was inconvenient and expensive for Indians to travel to.
• The examination was conducted in English, which was a foreign language for most Indians.
• The examination required knowledge of Classical Greek and Latin, which was not part of the standard Indian curriculum.
• The maximum age for entry into the ICS was gradually reduced, making it more difficult for older Indians to compete.
• In addition to the ICS, other administration departments such as the Police, Public Works Department, and Railways also reserved their superior and highly paid posts for British citizens. This was done to ensure that British interests were maintained in India.
• Although some Indians did eventually gain entry to the ICS and other administrative services, they were never given positions of real power. The British continued to control the levers of power in India, and Indians were largely excluded from decision-making. This led to growing resentment among Indians and eventually contributed to the Indian independence movement.

Here are some additional details that you may find interesting:

• The first Indian to be admitted to the ICS was Satyendranath Tagore, the brother of the famous poet Rabindranath Tagore.
• The Indian Civil Service was abolished in 1947 after India gained independence.
• The Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the highest-ranking civil service in independent India, was modeled on the ICS.

Relations with the Princely States

• Before 1857, the British took advantage of every opportunity to annex princely states. However, the Revolt of 1857 prompted the British to adopt a different approach towards these Indian States.
• A majority of the Indian princes not only remained loyal to the British but actively aided in suppressing the Revolt.
• In 1862, Canning declared that “the Crown of England stood forward, the unquestioned Ruler and Paramount Power in all India.” The princes were compelled to acknowledge British supremacy.
• In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of “Empress of India” to emphasize British sovereignty over the entire Indian subcontinent.
• Lord Curzon later clarified that the princes ruled their states merely as agents of the British Crown. The princes accepted this subordinate position willingly, becoming junior partners in the Empire, as they were guaranteed their continued rule over their states.
• As the paramount power, the British claimed the right to oversee the internal governance of the princely states. They not only interfered in day-to-day administration through the presence of Residents but also insisted on appointing and removing ministers and other high-ranking officials.
• Beginning in 1868, the British government recognized the adopted heir of the deposed ruler, and in 1881, full control of the state was restored to the young Maharajah.
• In 1874, the ruler of Baroda, Malhar Rao Gaekwad, was accused of misrule and attempting to poison the British Resident. Following a brief trial, he was deposed.

Administrative Policies

• Following the revolt of 1857, the British underwent a significant change in their attitude towards India, leading to the adoption of reactionary policies.
• A prevailing belief emerged that Indians were deemed unfit to govern themselves and must be ruled by Britain indefinitely. This reactionary approach was evident across various aspects.

Divide and Rule Policy

• The British had initially conquered India by exploiting the disunity among Indian powers and pitting them against each other.
• After 1858, they continued to implement a policy of divide and rule by creating divisions between the princes and the people, different provinces, various castes, different groups, and, notably, Hindus and Muslims.
• The unity displayed by Hindus and Muslims during the revolt of 1857 unsettled the foreign rulers, prompting them to undermine this unity to weaken the growing nationalist movement.
• Immediately after the revolt, the British repressed Muslims confiscated their lands and properties on a large scale, and openly favored Hindus. However, after 1870, this policy was reversed, and efforts were made to foster divisions between the upper-class and middle-class Muslims and the nationalist movement.
• Due to the industrial and commercial backwardness of India and the lack of social services, educated Indians heavily relied on government employment. This created intense competition among them for the limited government positions available.
• The British government exploited this competition to fuel provincial and communal rivalries and animosity. They offered official favors on a communal basis in exchange for loyalty, effectively pitting educated Muslims against educated Hindus.

Hostility towards Educated Indians

• The Government of India had actively promoted modern education after 1833.
• The establishment of the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857 marked the rapid spread of higher education.
• Initially, many British officials praised the educated Indians for their refusal to participate in the revolt of 1857. However, this favorable official attitude towards educated Indians quickly changed as some of them began utilizing their newly acquired modern knowledge to analyze the imperialistic nature of British rule and advocate for Indian participation in governance.
• As the educated Indians started organizing a nationalist movement among the people and founded the Indian National Congress in 1885, British officials became actively hostile towards higher education and educated Indians.
• They took deliberate measures to restrict higher education and demean educated Indians, commonly referring to them as ‘babus.’
• Thus, the British authorities turned against those Indians who had embraced modern Western knowledge and advocated for progress along contemporary lines. However, such progress directly contradicted the fundamental interests and policies of British imperialism in India.
• The official opposition to educated Indians and higher education serves as evidence that British rule in India had already exhausted any potential it initially held for progress.

Attitude towards Zamindars

• The British government sought to cultivate alliances with the most conservative segment of Indian society, including the princes, zamindars, and landlords.
• Similar to the treatment of the princes, the zamindars and landlords were also appeased. For instance, the lands of many talukdars in Avadh were returned to them.
• The zamindars and landlords were now glorified as the traditional and “natural” leaders of the Indian people. Their interests and privileges were safeguarded, and they were allowed to retain their land, often at the expense of the peasants. They were utilized as a counterbalance to the nationalist-minded intellectuals.
• In return, the zamindars and landlords recognized that their position depended on the preservation of British rule and thus became its steadfast supporters.

Attitude towards Social Reforms

• As part of their policy of aligning with conservative classes, the British abandoned their previous support for social reformers.
• The British believed that their earlier social reform measures, such as the abolition of Sati (widow burning) and allowing widows to remarry, had been significant factors contributing to the 1857 revolt.
• Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, in his book “The Discovery of India,” noted, “Because of this natural alliance of the British power with the reactionaries in India, it became the guardian and upholder of many an evil custom and practice, which it otherwise condemned.”
• It is worth noting, however, that the British did not always remain indifferent to social issues. By supporting the status quo, they indirectly protected existing social evils.
• By promoting casteism and communalism for political purposes, the British actively fueled social reactions and divisions.

Restrictions on the Press

• The British introduced the printing press in India, which led to the development of the modern press.
• Educated Indians quickly recognized the press’s potential to educate public opinion and influence government policies through criticism.
• Indian leaders such as Ram Mohan Roy, Vidyasagar, Dadabhai Naoroji, Justice Ranade, Surendranath Banerjee, Lokmanya Tilak, G. Subramaniya Iyer, C. Karunakara Menon, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and others played a crucial role in starting newspapers and turning them into a powerful political force.
• The Indian press enjoyed freedom after Charles Metcalfe lifted restrictions in 1835. This move was enthusiastically welcomed by educated Indians and partly influenced their initial support for British rule in India.
• However, as nationalists began using the press to awaken national consciousness and criticize the government’s reactionary policies, officials turned against the Indian press and sought to curtail its freedom. This led to the passage of the Vernacular Press Act in 1878, which imposed significant restrictions on Indian-language newspapers.
• The Act faced strong opposition and was repealed in 1882, granting the Indian press considerable freedom for about 25 years. However, with the rise of the militant Swadeshi and Boycott movement after 1905, repressive press laws were reintroduced in 1908 and 1910.

Racial Antagonism

• The British in India maintained a sense of racial superiority and kept themselves separate from the Indians.
• The revolt of 1857 and the atrocities committed by both sides further deepened the divide between the Indians and the British, who openly asserted their racial supremacy and displayed racial arrogance.
• Visible examples of racialism were evident in the segregation of railway compartments, waiting rooms, parks, hotels, swimming pools, clubs, etc., reserved exclusively for Europeans.

Extreme Backwardness of Social Services

• The Government of India allocated a significant portion of its income to the military, wars, and administrative services while neglecting social services.
• In 1886, out of its total net revenue of nearly Rs. 47 crores, the Indian government spent nearly 19.41 crores on the army and 17 crores on civil administration, but only about 2 crores on education, medicine, and public health, and a mere 65 lakhs on irrigation.
• Any progress made in providing services like sanitation, water supply, and public health was usually limited to urban areas, particularly the British or modern sections of cities, leaving the majority of the population underserved.

Labour Legislation

• In the 19th century, workers in modern factories and plantations faced harsh conditions. They were required to work long hours, typically between 12 and 16 hours per day, without a weekly day of rest. Women and children were subjected to the same grueling work hours as men, and wages were extremely low, ranging from Rs. 4 to 20 per month.
• The factories themselves were overcrowded, poorly lit, lacking proper ventilation, and unhygienic. Working with machines posed significant hazards, resulting in frequent accidents.
• The Government of India, generally favoring capitalist interests, took limited and insufficient steps to address the dire conditions in modern factories, many of which were owned by Indian industrialists. Pressure from British manufacturers influenced the government to pass factory laws, as they feared that cheap labor in India would enable Indian manufacturers to dominate the local market.
• The first Indian Factory Act was enacted in 1881, primarily focusing on child labor. According to this Act, children below the age of 7 were prohibited from working in factories, while those aged 7 to 12 could not work for more than 9 hours a day. Children were also entitled to four holidays per month. The Act also mandated the proper fencing of dangerous machinery.
• The second Indian Factory Act was passed in 1891 and introduced a weekly holiday for all workers. Working hours for women were limited to 11 hours per day, while daily work hours for children were reduced to 7. However, working hours for men remained unregulated.
• It is important to note that neither of these Acts applied to British-owned tea and coffee plantations. On the contrary, the government supported foreign planters in ruthlessly exploiting their workers. Penal laws were passed in 1863, 1865, 1870, 1873, and 1882 to assist planters, and once a laborer signed a contract to work on a plantation, they were legally obligated to do so. Breach of contract was considered a criminal offense, and laborers could be arrested at the planter’s discretion.
• In the 20th century, better labor laws were enacted under the influence of the growing trade union movement. However, the working conditions for the Indian laboring class remained extremely challenging and deplorable.

Organization of the Police

The police system established by Cornwallis during British rule in India had several key features:

• Transfer of Police Functions: Cornwallis relieved the zamindars (landlords) of their police responsibilities and created a separate, regular police force responsible for maintaining law and order.
• System of Circles or Thanas: Cornwallis introduced a system of circles or thanas, which were police stations headed by an Indian officer known as a daroga. Later, the post of District Superintendent of Police was established to oversee the police organization at the district level.
• Limited Opportunities for Indians: Despite the involvement of Indian officers at lower levels, Indians were generally excluded from holding superior positions within the police force.
• Village Watchmen: In rural areas, the duties of the police were often carried out by village watchmen who were supported by the local community.
• The police force gradually achieved success in reducing major crimes, such as dacoity (banditry), and played a significant role in suppressing the activities of thugs who targeted and harmed travelers, particularly in Central India.
• During the emergence of the national movement, the police were utilized to suppress and control activities perceived as threats to British control. Their role included preventing large-scale conspiracies against foreign rule and suppressing the nationalist movement as it gained momentum.
• It is worth noting that the police system in India was established earlier than the development of a similar system in Britain, giving India an advantage in this regard during the colonial period.

Police Commission (1860)

• During the pre-colonial period, various rulers, including the Mughals, had their systems of law enforcement. There were separate police forces for maintaining law and order, such as faujdars, mails, and kotwals, who performed different functions in different regions. Additionally, village watchmen were responsible for protecting villages during the night.

Police Reforms During the Colonial Period:

• The first Police Commission was established in 1860, following an inquiry into cases of police torture that had taken place in 1855. The 1861 Police Act was enacted based on the recommendations of this commission, primarily in response to the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. This act, which is still in effect today, placed the police force under the supervision of the state government. The appointment of the Commissioner of Police was made by the Chief or the Home Minister, and the police were not directly accountable to civil society or other democratic institutions.
• Under the reformed system, the position of the Superintendent of Police (SP) was abolished, and the collector/magistrate took charge of the police force in their jurisdiction. Each division had a commissioner who acted as the Special Police Officer. This organizational structure led to disorganization within the police force and placed a heavy burden on the collector/magistrate.
• The Police Commission’s recommendations included the establishment of a civil constabulary system that maintained the existing village setup with village watchmen, but with direct coordination with the larger constabulary. The hierarchy of the police force included an inspector-general at the provincial level, a deputy inspector-general at the range level, and a superintendent at the district level.

The Indian Police Act of 1861

• The Indian Police Act of 1861 aimed to reorganize the police force to enhance its effectiveness and efficiency. It replaced the military police with a uniform civil police force under the control of provincial administrations. The Act introduced the Inspector-General as the head of the provincial police force, and the superintendent oversaw the village police. It also established a clear command and control hierarchy within the police force.
• While the top ranks of the police force were primarily held by Europeans, Indians were predominantly recruited in lower ranks, although not exclusively. The Act emphasized improving village policing under the supervision of local magistrates. Efforts were made to enhance police salaries and bring them more in line with military services.
• In conclusion, the British government’s efforts to reform and utilize the police force in India had mixed results. The establishment of the Police Commission and the enactment of the 1861 Police Act aimed to reorganize and improve the effectiveness of the police. However, various factors, including the haste of implementation and limited Indian representation in higher ranks, affected the outcome. The political and administrative situation during this time was complex, and the impact of these reforms varied.

Development of Judiciary

• Hastings initiated the system, but Cornwallis made it workable.

Reforms To The Judiciary Under Warren Hastings

• To settle civil issues involving both Hindu and Muslim law, district-level Diwani Adalats were set up.
• The Sadar Diwani Adalat heard the appeal from the District Diwani Adalats.
• The Sadar Nizamat Adalat in Murshidabad, which oversaw the death penalty and the purchase of land, was run by a deputy Nizam (an Indian Muslim) with assistance from the senior mufti and chief qazi.
• A Supreme Court was established in Calcutta by the Regulating Act of 1773 with the power to hear cases involving all British subjects, including Indians and Europeans, who were present in Calcutta and its associated factories. It was a court with both original and appellate jurisdiction.

Changes Made By Cornwallis

• Cornwallis dissolved the District Fauzadari Court, and Circuit Courts were set up at Calcutta, Decca, Murshidabad, and Patna.
• European justices sit on its appeals court, which handles both civil and criminal issues.
• He transferred Sadar Nizamat Adalat to Calcutta, where it was overseen by the Governor-General and Supreme Council members, with the help of Chief Qazi and Chief Mufti.
• A district judge presided over the District, City, or Zila Court, which had been renamed from the District Diwani Adalat.

Alterations Made By William Bentinck

• The four Circuit Courts were dissolved under William Bentinck, and the duties of the former courts were given to collectors who were supervised by the commissioner of revenue and circuit.
• The Sadar Diwani Adalat and the Sadar Nizamat Adalat were founded in Allahabad.
• He established English as the official language for Supreme Court sessions, Persian, and vernacular language for lower court proceedings.
• Macaulay formed the Law Commission during his rule, which codified Indian laws.
• This commission served as the foundation for the creation of the Civil Procedure Code of 1859, the Indian Penal Code of 1860, and the Criminal Procedure Code of 1861.

Development of Civil Services

The development of civil services in India during the colonial period went through several stages and reforms. Here is an overview of the key milestones:

• Charter Act 1853: The Charter Act of 1853 ended the East India Company’s patronage system and introduced an open competition for future hiring. However, Indians were initially barred from holding prominent positions.
• Indian Civil Services Act 1861: Under the viceroyalty of Lord Canning, the Indian Civil Services Act was passed. While certain positions were reserved for covenanted civil servants, the examination was conducted in English and based on classical Greek and Latin knowledge. The age limit for eligibility gradually decreased over time.
• Statutory Civil Service: In 1878-1879, Lord Lytton introduced the Statutory Civil Service, allowing Indians of high families to fill one-sixth of covenanted jobs through local government nominations. However, this system was later repealed due to its ineffectiveness.
• Aitchison Commission 1886: The Aitchison Commission, headed by Sir Charles Aitchison, was established in 1886 to devise a strategy for including Indians in government service. It proposed abolishing the Statutory Civil Service and dividing the civil services into three groups: Imperial, Provincial, and Subordinate.
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms 1919: The Government of India Act on Constitutional Reforms of 1919 recommended three levels of service categorization: All India, Provincial, and Subordinate. All India Services provided special protections to employees in terms of dismissal, pay, pensions, and other rights. The Act also proposed the creation of a Public Service Commission to ensure impartial recruitment.
• Lee Commission 1924: The Lee Commission, established in 1923, examined the racial composition of the superior Indian public services. It recommended that 20% of recruits come from the provincial service, with 40% being British and 40% directly recruited Indians.
• Government of India Act 1935: The 1935 Act proposed the establishment of a Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service Commissions. However, positions of control and authority remained in British hands, and the Indianization of the civil service did not grant effective political power to Indians as they often acted as agents of colonial rule.
• Throughout this period, the civil services played a significant role in administering India’s newly acquired territories. However, the exclusionary practices and limited representation of Indians in higher positions remained a source of discontent and became a focus of subsequent reforms during the struggle for independence.

• The Swadeshi movement was indeed a self-sufficiency movement within the larger Indian independence movement. It emerged as a response to the British Government’s decision to partition Bengal in 1905, which was seen as a divisive tactic to weaken the nationalist movement.
• The movement aimed to promote the use of Indian-made products and boycott British goods as a means of economic resistance against British colonial rule. It called for the revival of indigenous industries and the promotion of Indian craftsmanship, thereby fostering a sense of national pride and self-reliance.
• The Swadeshi movement gained significant momentum and support from various sections of society, including intellectuals, students, and the middle class. It sparked a wave of patriotism and a sense of national identity among Indians, as they actively participated in the boycott of British goods and the promotion of Indian products.
• One of the notable aspects of the Swadeshi movement was its emphasis on promoting Indian culture and traditions. It aimed to revive traditional Indian arts and crafts, promote the use of indigenous materials, and revive the study of Indian languages and history. This cultural aspect of the movement played a crucial role in strengthening the collective identity and unity of Indians.
• The Swadeshi movement also had a significant impact on the political landscape of India. It laid the foundation for organized political activism, as various organizations and societies were formed to coordinate and lead the movement. These organizations, such as the Swadeshi Sabha and the Indian National Congress, played a pivotal role in mobilizing public support and shaping the Indian nationalist movement.

Overall, the Swadeshi movement was a significant phase in India’s struggle for independence, as it instilled a sense of self-reliance, national pride, and cultural revival among Indians. It laid the groundwork for future movements and leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, who furthered the cause of Indian independence through nonviolent means.

Background

• The Swadeshi movement emerged as a result of the anti-partition movement in response to Lord Curzon’s decision to divide the province of Bengal. The partition, announced in 1905, was seen as a deliberate strategy to weaken the growing nationalist sentiment in Bengal.
• The anti-partition movement was led by moderate leaders such as Surendranath Banerjee, Ananda Mohan Bose, and others who opposed the division of Bengal on administrative and communal lines. They believed that the partition would not only harm the social and cultural fabric of Bengal but also hinder the progress of the nationalist movement.
• To protest against the partition, the moderates launched the Anti-Partition Campaign. They organized public meetings, sent petitions to the government, and utilized newspapers and other means of communication to spread awareness about the unjustness of the decision.
• During this period, the idea of boycotting foreign goods as a form of protest gained traction. The call for Swadeshi (using Indian-made goods) and Boycott (refraining from using British goods) became central to the anti-partition movement. The pledge to boycott foreign goods was made in public meetings, and it symbolized a form of economic resistance against British rule.
• Newspapers played a crucial role in disseminating the ideas of the movement. Publications like Hitabadi, Sanjibani, and Bengalee acted as platforms for expressing nationalist sentiments, promoting self-reliance, and urging people to boycott foreign goods.
• The partition of Bengal and the subsequent anti-partition movement and the Swadeshi movement sparked widespread protests and demonstrations throughout Bengal. People from various sections of society, including students, intellectuals, and common citizens, actively participated in the movement.
• The Swadeshi movement, with its emphasis on self-reliance, the boycott of foreign goods, and the promotion of Indian products, not only provided a means of resistance against British rule but also fostered a sense of national pride and unity among Indians. It laid the foundation for future nationalist movements and played a significant role in shaping the path towards Indian independence.

Partition of Bengal

• The partition of Bengal during Lord Curzon’s tenure as Viceroy of India was indeed a significant event that played a crucial role in the emergence of the Swadeshi movement. Lord Curzon, who served as Viceroy from 1899 to 1905, implemented the partition for administrative reasons.
• The partition of Bengal was officially announced on October 16, 1905. It involved dividing the Bengal province into two separate entities: East Bengal and Assam, with its capital in Dhaka, and the rest of Bengal, with its capital in Calcutta. The stated reason for the partition was to improve administrative efficiency by creating two smaller provinces.
• However, many Indians recognized that the partition had deeper political motives. They believed that the British government intended to weaken the growing nationalist sentiment in Bengal by dividing it along religious lines. The partition resulted in a predominantly Hindu-majority western Bengal and a Muslim-majority eastern Bengal.
• The anti-partition movement, fueled by the spirit of nationalism and opposition to the division of Bengal, gained momentum. This movement later became known as the Swadeshi movement. Swadeshi, meaning “of one’s own country” or “self-sufficiency,” became the rallying cry for Indians who aimed to end British rule and improve the economic conditions of the country.
• The Swadeshi movement advocated for the boycott of foreign goods and the promotion of Indian-made products. It aimed to create economic self-reliance and reduce dependence on British goods. The movement encouraged Indians to support indigenous industries, revive traditional crafts, and promote national education.
• The Swadeshi movement, with its emphasis on self-sufficiency, the boycott of foreign goods, and the spirit of nationalism, became a popular strategy for resistance against British rule. It garnered widespread support and participation from people across different sections of society, including students, intellectuals, and common citizens.
• The Swadeshi movement played a significant role in mobilizing the masses, fostering a sense of national pride and unity, and laying the foundation for future nationalist movements in India. It became an important component of the larger Indian independence movement and contributed to shaping the country’s struggle for freedom and economic progress.

Nature of the Movement

• The Swadeshi Movement was characterized by a proactive approach and a strong emphasis on self-reliance and boycott as means of resistance against British rule. Bengal leaders recognized that mere demonstrations and resolutions would not effectively convey the depth of popular sentiment to the rulers. They believed that more tangible actions were necessary to demonstrate the intensity of their feelings.
• Swadeshi, which means “of one’s own country,” became a central tenet of the movement. It involved the promotion and use of Indian-made goods as a way to reduce dependence on British imports. Additionally, the boycott of British goods was advocated to exert economic pressure on the colonial rulers and support indigenous industries.
• Mass meetings were held throughout Bengal, where pledges to practice Swadeshi and boycott British goods were taken. Public burnings of foreign cloth, symbolizing the rejection of British products, became a common sight. Shops selling foreign goods were picketed, discouraging people from purchasing them.
• The Swadeshi Movement went beyond political activities and permeated various aspects of daily life. It influenced social and domestic practices as well. Marriage presents containing foreign goods, which could be easily replaced with Indian-made alternatives, was returned. This demonstrated a commitment to self-reliance and a rejection of foreign influence.
• The movement also emphasized the importance of self-sufficiency, referred to as “Atma Sakti” in Bengali. It aimed to foster a sense of self-confidence and empowerment among Indians by encouraging them to rely on their own resources and capabilities.
• Another constructive aspect of the Swadeshi Movement was the promotion of national education. It was seen as a means to develop self-sufficient and intellectually empowered individuals who could contribute to the progress of the nation. Nationalist leaders and organizations established educational institutions that focused on providing education rooted in Indian culture and values.

Overall, the Swadeshi Movement was characterized by a proactive and multifaceted approach. It encompassed the use of Swadeshi products, the boycott of British goods, public demonstrations, social practices, and the promotion of national education. The movement aimed to instil a sense of self-reliance, national pride, and unity among Indians, laying the foundation for a broader struggle for independence.

The Extent of Mass Participation

• The Swadeshi Movement witnessed significant mass participation from various sections of society, including students, women, and Muslims. Their involvement contributed to the strength and impact of the movement.
• Bengali students played a crucial role in the Swadeshi agitation. They actively practised and promoted Swadeshi principles and led picketing campaigns against shops selling foreign clothing. However, the government, recognizing the influence of students, took measures to suppress their participation. Schools and colleges whose students actively participated in the Swadeshi agitation faced penalties. Students found guilty of nationalist activities were subjected to disciplinary actions, including fines, expulsions, arrests, and even physical assaults by the police.
• Women’s active participation in the Swadeshi movement was a notable aspect. Women from the urban middle classes, who were traditionally confined to the domestic sphere, defied societal norms and joined processions and picketing campaigns. Their involvement marked a significant shift in their roles within the nationalist movement, and they continued to play an active part in subsequent nationalist activities.
• The Swadeshi Movement also witnessed the participation of prominent Muslims. Individuals like Abdul Rasul, a well-known barrister, Liaquat Hussain, a prominent agitator, and Guznavi, a businessman, joined the movement. However, it is important to note that the Muslim community’s response to the movement was diverse. While some Muslims actively participated, others, including middle- and upper-class individuals led by the Nawab of Dhaka, remained neutral or even supported the partition of Bengal. Some saw the creation of East Bengal as an opportunity for a Muslim-majority region. The government encouraged communal attitudes among certain Muslim leaders, and Lord Curzon himself expressed the intention to unite Muslims in Eastern Bengal.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, a prominent Muslim leader, joined a revolutionary terrorist organization during this period, indicating the different approaches adopted by Muslim individuals in response to the movement.

Overall, the Swadeshi Movement saw mass participation from various sections of society, including students, women, and Muslims. While some faced opposition and repression from the government, their active involvement contributed to the movement’s strength and had a lasting impact on the nationalist movement in India.

Anti-Partition Campaign under Moderates (1903-1905)

• The Anti-Partition Campaign led by the moderates from 1903 to 1905 was a significant phase preceding the formal proclamation of the Swadeshi Movement. Key leaders such as Surendranath Banerjea, K.K. Mitra, and Prithwishchandra Ray played pivotal roles in providing leadership during this period.
• To resist the unjust partition of Bengal, the moderates employed various strategies. They petitioned the government, organized public meetings, wrote memoranda, and disseminated propaganda through pamphlets and newspapers like Hitabadi, Sanjibani, and Bengalee. These efforts aimed to mobilize public opinion and generate enough pressure on the government, both in India and England, to prevent the partition from taking place.
• On August 7, 1905, the formal proclamation of the Swadeshi Movement was made during a massive meeting held in the Calcutta Townhall. The passage of the Boycott Resolution marked a significant turning point in the movement, symbolizing the shift towards more active resistance against the partition and British rule.
• Following the proclamation, the Swadeshi Movement spread to other parts of the country, gaining momentum under the leadership of various influential figures. Bal Gangadhar Tilak led the movement in Poona and Bombay, Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh in Punjab, Syed Haider Raza in Delhi, and Chidambaram Pillai in Madras. The movement’s reach expanded, and its principles of Swadeshi and boycott gained traction nationwide.
• This phase of the Anti-Partition Campaign, led by the moderates, laid the foundation for the Swadeshi Movement, which subsequently gained widespread support and became a significant force in the Indian independence movement.

Anti-Partition Campaign under Extremists (1905-08)

• After the initial phase led by the moderates, the Extremists took control of the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal from 1905 to 1908. The moderates’ efforts in the Anti-Partition Campaign had yielded no tangible results, and nationalists were growing increasingly frustrated with the divisive tactics employed by the Bengal governments.
• In response to the resistance and growing nationalist sentiment, the British government resorted to suppressive measures to quell the movement. These measures included brutal treatment of students, who often faced corporal punishment for their participation in nationalist activities. The singing of patriotic songs like Vande Mataram was banned, public meetings were restricted, and Swadeshi workers were subjected to prosecution and long imprisonment.
• Clashes between the police and the people erupted in many towns, and numerous leaders were arrested and deported. Additionally, freedom of the press was suppressed, limiting the dissemination of nationalist ideas and information.
• These repressive actions by the government further fueled the extremist sentiment within the Swadeshi Movement. The Extremists sought more radical methods to confront British rule and achieve independence, leading to the rise of revolutionary terrorism as a means to combat the oppressive regime.

Overall, the period between 1905 and 1908 witnessed a shift in the Swadeshi Movement’s leadership and a growing frustration among nationalists due to the government’s suppressive measures, which ultimately influenced the movement’s transformation towards more extremist approaches.

Government Acts For Repressing Swadeshi Movement

The British government implemented a series of repressive measures to quell the Swadeshi Movement and the associated Boycott Movement. These measures were aimed at curbing the growth and impact of the nationalist movement in India. Some of the notable acts and laws introduced by the government include:

• Seditious Meeting Act (1907): This act was enacted to restrict public gatherings, rallies, and processions that were deemed seditious or had the potential to incite anti-government sentiments. It aimed to control and suppress the public mobilization and expression of nationalist ideas.
• Criminal Law Amendment Act (1908): This act provided the government with extensive powers to arrest and detain individuals involved in seditious activities. It allowed for harsh punishments and longer prison terms for those found guilty of offences against the state.
• Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offenses) Act (1908): This act imposed strict censorship and control over the press, particularly newspapers. It aimed to prevent the publication of articles, reports, or opinions that could incite anti-government activities or promote nationalist sentiments.
• Explosive Substances Act (1908): This act was primarily aimed at curbing revolutionary activities and the use of explosive substances by nationalist groups. It granted authorities the power to take action against individuals involved in manufacturing, possessing, or distributing explosives.
• Indian Press Act (1910): This act further strengthened government control over the press by imposing stricter regulations and censorship. It empowered authorities to suppress publications, suspend or cancel licenses of newspapers, and take legal action against journalists and publishers.
• These acts and laws were designed to suppress the Swadeshi Movement and restrict the spread of nationalist ideas and activities. They allowed the British government to control public gatherings, limit the dissemination of information, and crack down on individuals involved in nationalist movements, thereby hindering the progress and impact of the Swadeshi Movement.

Significance

The Swadeshi Movement holds immense significance in the history of the Indian independence movement. Here are some key aspects of its significance:

• Shift towards Direct Political Action: The Swadeshi Movement marked a departure from the earlier approach of relying solely on petitions and prayers to the British government. It embraced direct political action, such as boycotts and protests, to challenge British policies and assert Indian demands.
• Demand for Repealing Bengal Partition: Initially, the Swadeshi Movement focused on opposing the unjust partition of Bengal. It aimed to have the partition annulled, reflecting the movement’s determination to safeguard the unity and integrity of Bengal.
• The Struggle for Complete Freedom: Over time, the Swadeshi Movement expanded its goals beyond the annulment of partition. It evolved into a broader movement advocating for complete freedom from foreign domination. It became a significant step towards the larger objective of Indian independence.
• Economic Boycott: The Swadeshi Movement employed the strategy of boycott, primarily targeting British goods, to economically pressure the British government. By promoting the use of Indian goods and discouraging the consumption of foreign products, the movement aimed to weaken British economic interests in India.
• Cultural Renaissance: The Swadeshi Movement witnessed a cultural resurgence, particularly in Bengal. It created a platform for artistic and literary expressions that reflected nationalist sentiments. Eminent figures like Rabindranath Tagore and Rajanikanto Sen contributed patriotic compositions, poems, and writings, which resonated with the masses and inspired a sense of pride in their cultural heritage.
• Mass Participation: The Swadeshi Movement saw widespread participation from various sections of society, including students, women, and professionals. It mobilized and united people across different social and economic backgrounds, fostering a sense of national identity and solidarity.

Overall, the Swadeshi Movement played a crucial role in galvanizing the Indian masses, promoting self-reliance, and shaping the discourse of Indian nationalism. It laid the foundation for future movements and set the stage for a more assertive struggle against British colonial rule.

Impact

The Swadeshi Movement had a profound impact on various aspects of Indian society and the freedom struggle. Here are some of its notable impacts:

• Economic Impact: The movement led to a significant decline in the import of foreign goods during the period from 1905 to 1908. The boycott and emphasis on using Indian-made products encouraged the growth of indigenous industries, such as textile mills, soap and match factories, tanneries, and more. It revitalized the Indian cottage industry, promoting self-sufficiency and economic empowerment.
• Rise of Nationalism and Extremism: The Swadeshi Movement sparked a sense of extreme nationalism among young people. Some individuals turned to more radical methods, including acts of violence, to challenge British dominance and assert Indian independence. This shift towards extremism played a crucial role in shaping the course of the freedom struggle.
• Political Concessions: The pressure exerted by the Swadeshi Movement compelled the British government to make certain concessions. The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 were introduced as a response to Indian demands. These reforms aimed to provide limited political representation for Indians, particularly the educated elite. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a prominent moderate leader, played a key role in advocating for these reforms.
• Educational and Cultural Development: The Swadeshi Movement spurred the establishment of Swadeshi institutions. The Bengal National College and other national schools and colleges were founded with the vision of promoting Indian culture and education. The National Council of Education, formed in 1906, played a crucial role in organizing the national education system. Additionally, initiatives like Rabindranath Tagore’s Shantiniketan fostered a renaissance in Indian literature, arts, and intellectual pursuits.
• Social Boycott: The movement not only advocated for the boycott of foreign goods but also resulted in a social boycott of those associated with them. Both buyers and sellers of foreign goods faced social ostracism, highlighting the collective efforts to reject British influence and promote self-reliance.
• Symbolic Acts: The Swadeshi Movement involved symbolic acts such as burning foreign goods, particularly clothing, sugar, and salt, as a means of protest and defiance against British rule. These acts aimed to showcase the commitment to indigenous production and self-sufficiency.

Overall, the Swadeshi Movement left a lasting impact on various spheres of Indian society, including the economy, education, culture, and political consciousness. It ignited a sense of national pride, self-reliance, and a determination to challenge British dominance, laying the foundation for future movements in the struggle for independence.

Issues

• Lack of Hindu-Muslim Unity: The Swadeshi movement faced challenges in uniting Hindus and Muslims. The efforts of leaders like Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and the establishment of the Muslim League created divisions and led to separate electorates for Muslims. This divisive approach hindered the formation of a unified mass movement.
• Limited Mass Base: The Swadeshi movement struggled to gain a broad mass base. The focus on political issues and the lack of addressing the concerns of peasants and other marginalized groups limited the movement’s appeal and participation.
• Neglect of Peasants’ Grievances: The Swadeshi movement did not effectively address the grievances of peasants, such as the land revenue system, tenant rights, and land grabbing. These issues were important to the rural population, but the movement did not adequately address their concerns, which resulted in the peasants not actively participating in the movement.
• Role of Bengal Partition: The partition of Bengal from 1903 to 1908 served as a catalyst for the Swadeshi Movement. The decision to divide Bengal sparked widespread dissatisfaction and acted as a trigger for the movement. However, despite its initial impetus, the movement faced challenges in sustaining momentum and addressing broader socio-economic issues.
• It is important to note that while the Swadeshi movement had its limitations and faced challenges, it still played a significant role in fostering nationalistic sentiments, promoting self-reliance, and laying the groundwork for future movements in the Indian independence struggle.

Reasons for Failure

The Swadeshi movement faced several challenges that contributed to its eventual failure. Here are some reasons for its failure:

• Repression by the British Government: The British government employed repressive measures to suppress the movement, which led to the withdrawal of revolutionaries and activists from the public sphere. Severe repression weakened the movement and disrupted its activities.
• Lack of Formal Party Structure: The Swadeshi movement lacked a formal party structure, which hindered effective organization and coordination. Without a centralized leadership and organizational framework, the movement faced difficulties in sustaining its momentum and implementing strategies.
• Arrest and Retirement of Leaders: The movement suffered setbacks due to the arrest of prominent leaders and their subsequent retirement from active participation. The absence of influential leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh and Bipin Chandra Pal deprived the movement of their leadership and guidance.
• Surat Split and Leadership Fragmentation: The Surat split in 1907, during the Indian National Congress session, resulted in a division among the movement’s leadership. The split weakened the unity of the leadership and created internal conflicts, which further undermined the movement’s effectiveness.
• Limited Mass Appeal: The Swadeshi movement primarily appealed to the upper-middle class and urban population. It failed to effectively reach and mobilize the masses, particularly the peasantry. The movement’s focus on nationalist and economic issues did not address the grievances and aspirations of the broader population, limiting its mass appeal.
• Inability to Practice Non-cooperation and Passive Resistance: While non-cooperation and passive resistance was advocated by the movement, they were not effectively put into practice. The challenges of organizing and coordinating such actions on a large scale, coupled with the repression by the government, hindered the implementation of these strategies.
• Inability to Sustain High Pitch and Momentum: The Swadeshi movement struggled to maintain the high level of enthusiasm and momentum it initially achieved. As the movement progressed, it faced challenges in sustaining public interest and participation, leading to a decline in its impact.
• It is important to note that while the Swadeshi movement faced these obstacles and eventually waned, it played a crucial role in shaping Indian nationalism, inspiring future movements, and raising awareness about self-reliance and indigenous industries.

Conclusion

• The Swadeshi movement emerged as a response to the partition of Bengal and aimed to promote self-sufficiency, economic empowerment, and nationalistic sentiments among Indians. While the movement had its successes in reducing foreign imports, revitalizing Indian industries, and fostering cultural resurgence, it also faced significant challenges and ultimately fell short of achieving its broader goals.
• The movement’s failure can be attributed to factors such as repression by the British government, the lack of a formal party structure, the arrest and retirement of key leaders, internal divisions within the leadership, limited mass appeal, and the inability to sustain non-cooperation and passive resistance. These factors undermined the movement’s ability to mobilize a broad-based mass movement and implement its strategies effectively.
• Despite its limitations and ultimate failure, the Swadeshi movement made significant contributions to the Indian independence movement and had a lasting impact on the country’s national consciousness. It sparked a sense of national pride and self-reliance, promoted indigenous industries, and laid the groundwork for future nationalist movements. The movement’s emphasis on cultural revitalization and the promotion of indigenous goods and education also left a lasting legacy.

Overall, the Swadeshi movement remains an important chapter in India’s struggle for independence, highlighting the challenges and complexities involved in challenging colonial rule and promoting nationalistic aspirations. It served as a precursor to later movements and laid the foundation for the larger fight against British imperialism in the years to come.

• Before the Indian National Congress (INC) came into existence, there were different political groups present. The INC was not the initial political organization in India. However, during the early 19th century, most political associations were primarily controlled by affluent and aristocratic individuals. These associations had a more localized or regional focus. As time progressed into the latter half of the 19th century, political organizations saw a shift in dominance towards the educated middle class, including professionals like lawyers, journalists, doctors, teachers, etc. These individuals possessed a wider outlook and pursued more comprehensive goals.

The objectives of political associations before the establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) were as follows:

• Promoting Education: They advocated for the expansion of education among the general population, emphasizing the importance of education for social progress and empowerment.
• Enhancing Indian Representation: They aimed to increase the presence and participation of Indians in the executive and legislative councils, seeking a more inclusive and representative governance structure.
• Opposing Discrimination: These associations actively opposed the discriminatory policies and actions implemented by the British administration that adversely affected Indians, striving for equality and justice.
• Administrative Reforms: They sought to bring about reforms in the administrative system to make it more responsive, transparent, and accountable to the needs and aspirations of the Indian population.
• Press Freedom: Ensuring the freedom of the press was another objective, advocating for the right to express opinions and disseminate information without censorship or undue restrictions.
• These objectives reflected the aspirations and concerns of the pre-INC political associations, laying the foundation for the larger movement towards independence and self-governance in India.

Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha

• The Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha was established in 1836 by the associates of Raja Rammohan Roy. It emerged before the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC). The primary objectives of this organization were to advocate for administrative reforms, promote the participation of Indians in the administration, and spread education. Additionally, the Sabha played a significant role in awakening a sense of collective will and fostering a path toward modern nationalism among the general population.

Zamindari Association (Bengal Landholders Society)

• The Zamindari Association also referred to as the ‘Landholders’ Society,’ was established in 1838 to protect the interests of landlords. Its founders included Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Dwarkanath Tagore, and Radhakant Deb, who formed the organization in 1836. Although the Landholders’ Society had a specific focus, it marked the beginning of organized political engagement and the utilization of constitutional methods to address grievances.
• The association primarily sought to safeguard the interests of landlords and pursued its objectives through constitutional means. It employed tactics such as lengthy petitions to the British Parliament, advocating for administrative reforms, greater Indian participation in the administration, and the promotion of education, among other demands.
• These political organizations played a crucial role in advancing their causes by utilizing constitutional agitation methods and engaging with the British authorities through petitions and appeals.

Bengal British India Society

• The Bengal British India Society was established in 1843 in England by William Adam, who was a close associate of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Its primary goal was to raise awareness about the dire conditions in which the British were subjecting the Indian population, to improve their circumstances. The society employed constitutional and legal methods to pursue its objectives.

British India Association

• The British India Association came into existence in 1851 through the merger of the Bengal Landholders Society and the British India Society. Its main function was to present petitions that addressed the concerns and grievances of the general public. For example, they submitted a petition to the British Parliament, offering suggestions for the new Charter Law of the company. As a result, one of their suggestions was incorporated into the Charter Act of 1853, leading to the expansion of the Governor General’s Council for Legislative purposes by adding six new members.
• However, due to the lack of a comprehensive political strategy, the British India Association was unable to operate on a nationwide scale.

East India Association

• The East India Association was founded by Dadabhai Nawrojee in London in 1867. Its primary objective was to raise awareness among the British public about the prevailing conditions in India and to garner support for the welfare of the Indian people. It is also recognized as the precursor to the Indian National Congress, which played a crucial role in India’s independence movement.
• One significant aspect of the East India Association was its challenge to the notion of Asians being inferior to Europeans, particularly in response to the Ethnological Society of London’s beliefs in 1866. The association aimed to refute these discriminatory ideas and promote equality.
• By 1869, the East India Association had established its presence in major Indian cities such as Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta, indicating its growing influence and outreach.

Indian League

• The Indian League was established in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh to foster a spirit of nationalism and promote political education among the Indian population. The organization attracted prominent nationalist leaders, including Ananda Mohan Bose, Durgamohan Das, Nabagopal Mitra, and Surendranath Banerjee, among others. These leaders played significant roles in advocating for Indian independence and shaping the nationalist movement in India.

Indian National Association (Indian Association of Calcutta)

• The Indian National Association, also known as the Indian Association of Calcutta, was founded in 1876 by prominent Bengali nationalists like Anand Mohan Bose and Surendranath Banerjee. The organization emerged as a response to the British India Association’s conservative and pro-landlord policies, which caused discontent among the younger generation of Bengali nationalists.
• The Indian National Association had several objectives, including advocating for reforms in civil services examinations and mobilizing public opinion on significant national political issues. The association’s presence in various Indian cities allowed it to expand its membership and connect with a wider audience.
• Eventually, the Indian National Association merged with the Indian National Congress, which became the leading political organization in the struggle for India’s independence. The merger helped consolidate the nationalist movement and strengthen its efforts to achieve self-rule for India.

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha

• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in 1870 by notable figures such as M.G. Ranade, G.V. Joshi, S.H. Chiplankar, and their associates. This sociopolitical organization played a crucial role in British India, serving as a mediator between the government and the Indian people. One of the primary objectives of the Sabha was to raise awareness and promote the legal rights of peasants.
• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha aimed to bridge the gap between the authorities and the common people, advocating for the rights of the agricultural community and working to popularize their legal entitlements. By acting as a mediating body, the Sabha sought to foster a better understanding between the government and the Indian population while championing the cause of the peasants.

Bombay Presidency Association

• The Bombay Presidency Association was founded in 1885 by Pherozshah Mehta, K.T. Telang, and Badruddin Tyabji. The establishment of this association was a response to the reactionary policies of Lord Lytton, the then Viceroy of India, and the controversy surrounding the Ilbert Bill.
• The Bombay Presidency, also referred to as Bombay and Sind from 1843 to 1936, was an administrative region within British India. It encompassed the area with its capital in Bombay (now Mumbai), which was the first mainland territory acquired in the Konkan region through the Treaty of Bassein in 1802.

Madras Mahajan Sabha

• The Madras Mahajan Sabha was a prominent Indian nationalist organization based in the Madras Presidency. It is considered one of the precursors to the Indian National Congress, alongside other organizations such as the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, and the Indian Association.
• In May 1884, the Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded by influential individuals such as M. Veeraraghavachariar, G. Subramania Iyer, and P. Ananda Charlu. The Sabha played a vital role in promoting nationalist ideals and advocating for the interests and rights of the Indian people in the Madras Presidency region. Its formation and activities contributed to the eventual emergence of the Indian National Congress as a unified national platform for the Indian independence movement.

Bombay Association (Bombay Native Association)

• The Bombay Association, also known as the Bombay Native Association, was initiated in 1852 by notable individuals including Jaggannath Shankersheth, Sir Jamshedji Jejibhai, Jagannath Shankarshet, Naoroji Fursungi, Dr Bhau Daji Lad, Dadabhai Naoroji, and Vinayak Shankarshet. This association is recognized as the first political party or organization in the Bombay Province.
• The primary objective of the Bombay Association was to address public grievances by employing legal and agitational means. The organization sought to represent the interests and concerns of the local population, advocating for their rights and working towards the improvement of their social, economic, and political conditions within the Bombay Province.

Madras Native Association

• The Madras Native Association was established by Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty in 1849 within the Madras Presidency. This organization holds the distinction of being the first political organization in Madras.
• The Madras Native Association played a significant role in voicing the concerns and interests of the local population in the Madras Presidency. It aimed to promote the rights and welfare of the native people and actively engaged in political activities to address their grievances. By providing a platform for political mobilization, the association laid the groundwork for subsequent political organizations and movements in the region.

Limitations of Political Association Before INC

• Before the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC), the political associations of the time played a crucial role in generating nationalism and addressing the political aspirations of the Indian public. However, these associations had certain limitations:
• Local Focus: The activities of these associations were primarily centred around resolving local issues and concerns. Their scope and impact were limited to specific regions or provinces.
• Regional Leadership: The members and leaders of these associations were generally limited to individuals from one or adjoining provinces. This regional focus restricted their ability to represent a diverse range of interests and perspectives from across the entire subcontinent.
• Lack of National Unity: The absence of a unified national platform meant that these political associations operated independently and did not have a coordinated effort or shared vision for the entire country. The absence of a cohesive national front limited their collective strength and impact.
• The emergence of National Unity: The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 marked a significant turning point as it brought together leaders from different regions and communities, providing a platform for national unity and a coordinated effort towards common political goals.
• The Indian National Congress played a pivotal role in establishing a nationwide movement for independence and became a unifying force for the diverse aspirations of the Indian people.

The emergence of the middle classes in India during the second half of the nineteenth century was a significant socio-economic phenomenon shaped by British colonial policies, the rise of Western education, industrialization, and evolving social structures. This group, distinct from the traditional elite and the peasantry, played a pivotal role in shaping modern India by leading reform movements, influencing nationalist politics, and spearheading changes in cultural and intellectual domains.

Historical Context of the Middle Class Formation

The second half of the nineteenth century was marked by significant transformations under British colonial rule. The Industrial Revolution in Britain had spillover effects on India, leading to changes in trade patterns, the establishment of railways, and the growth of urban centers. This period also witnessed the implementation of colonial administrative reforms, which expanded bureaucracy, judiciary, and education systems. These developments created opportunities for new professional groups, such as clerks, teachers, lawyers, journalists, and businessmen, who would form the backbone of the emerging middle class.

The introduction of English education, beginning with the Charter Act of 1813 and institutionalized by Lord Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835), played a foundational role in this emergence. English became the language of administration, law, and commerce, and proficiency in it provided access to jobs and status. Schools, colleges, and universities established by the British, such as the University of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1857), produced a generation of educated Indians who adopted Western ideas of progress, rationalism, and individual rights while remaining rooted in their cultural ethos.

Composition and Characteristics of the Indian Middle Class

The middle class was a heterogeneous group, encompassing diverse professional, regional, and religious identities. Predominantly composed of upper-caste Hindus, especially Brahmins and Kayasthas, due to their historical association with learning and administration, the middle class also included Parsis, Christians, and Muslims in urban areas. The members of this class shared certain defining characteristics:

1. Professional Orientation: Employment in colonial bureaucracy, law, education, journalism, and the private sector became the hallmark of the middle class. Lawyers, in particular, formed a significant segment, with figures like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale emerging as prominent leaders.

2. Western Education and Cultural Adaptation: The middle class adopted Western clothing styles, dietary habits, and social customs to align with colonial norms. At the same time, they selectively revived traditional practices to reinforce their identity, as seen in the reformist movements of the time.

3. Urban Concentration: Middle-class growth was concentrated in urban centers like Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, and Lahore, which served as administrative, industrial, and cultural hubs.

4. Economic Status: While economically more secure than the peasantry, they were not as wealthy as the traditional feudal aristocracy. Their income was often derived from salaried positions rather than landholdings.

Factors Driving the Emergence of the Middle Class

Several factors contributed to the rise of the middle class in India during this period:

1. Colonial Administration: The British expanded the civil services, judiciary, and other administrative apparatuses to govern India effectively. The creation of these institutions required a class of Indians educated in Western systems, which the colonial government could employ in subordinate roles.

2. Expansion of Education: Missionary efforts and government initiatives to establish schools and colleges enabled access to English education. The Indian middle class became the primary beneficiary of this educational expansion, which helped them secure employment and social mobility.

3. Growth of Urban Centers: Urbanization during this period, fueled by the development of railways, ports, and industrial enterprises, created new economic opportunities. Middle-class professionals thrived in cities, taking advantage of jobs in trade, commerce, and government service.

4. Print Media and Public Sphere: The proliferation of newspapers, journals, and books in English and vernacular languages enabled the middle class to articulate their views and engage with contemporary issues. Figures like Raja Rammohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar used the press to advocate reforms and mobilize public opinion.

5. Social Reform Movements: Reformist efforts, such as those of the Brahmo Samaj (founded by Raja Rammohan Roy), the Arya Samaj (founded by Dayananda Saraswati), and the Aligarh Movement (led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan), reflected the aspirations of the middle class to challenge orthodoxy and address issues like caste discrimination, widow remarriage, and women’s education.

Contributions of the Middle Class

The Indian middle class had far-reaching impacts on various aspects of society, culture, and politics during the nineteenth century:

1. Nationalist Movements: Members of the middle class were instrumental in founding the Indian National Congress (1885), which became the principal platform for expressing anti-colonial sentiments. Early leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, and Pherozeshah Mehta came from middle-class backgrounds.

2. Social Reforms: The middle class spearheaded movements aimed at eradicating social evils. Figures like Vidyasagar advocated widow remarriage and women’s education, while Rammohan Roy opposed sati and caste rigidity.

3. Cultural Renaissance: The middle class played a central role in the Bengal Renaissance, a period of intellectual and cultural efflorescence. Artists, writers, and scholars such as Rabindranath Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, and Debendranath Tagore enriched Indian literature, art, and philosophy.

4. Economic Modernization: Middle-class entrepreneurs, particularly among communities like the Parsis and Marwaris, began investing in industries such as textiles, shipping, and banking. Figures like Jamsetji Tata laid the foundation for modern industrial development in India.

Challenges and Limitations

Despite its progressive contributions, the Indian middle class faced several challenges. Its size was limited compared to the vast rural population, and its influence remained confined to urban areas. Moreover, its reliance on English education and colonial employment often alienated it from the masses. The middle class was also criticized for being complicit with the British administration, particularly in its early stages, as many members prioritized personal advancement over collective struggles.

Conclusion

The emergence of the middle class in the second half of the nineteenth century was a transformative phenomenon in Indian history. This group not only bridged the gap between the colonial rulers and the broader population but also laid the groundwork for India’s modern political, social, and cultural identity. By championing reforms, leading the nationalist movement, and fostering cultural renewal, the middle class played a crucial role in shaping the trajectory of Indian society during the colonial period and beyond.

The Revolt of 1857, often regarded as India’s first war of independence, marked a critical turning point in the history of British rule in India. Although it failed to dislodge British authority, it forced the colonial administration to reassess and significantly alter its policies to prevent future rebellions. The period following the revolt witnessed profound changes in British governance, military strategies, economic policies, and administrative structures, reflecting the lessons learned from the uprising.

End of Company Rule and the Transfer of Power to the Crown

One of the most significant changes after 1857 was the abolition of the East India Company. Through the Government of India Act 1858, the governance of India was transferred directly to the British Crown. This marked the beginning of the British Raj, with the Secretary of State for India, based in London, assuming overall responsibility. A new administrative office, the India Council, was established to advise the Secretary of State. In India, the Governor-General was redesignated as the Viceroy, symbolizing the Crown’s direct authority.

The transfer of power aimed to strengthen British control by eliminating the inefficiencies and corruption of Company rule. Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858 was issued as a formal declaration of these changes. It promised justice, equality, and religious tolerance, declaring that the British government would not interfere with the religious beliefs and practices of Indians. This shift was intended to quell the fears of further religious and cultural impositions that had contributed to the revolt.

Changes in Administrative Policies

Post-1857, British policies became more conservative and cautious. The earlier policy of Westernization and reform gave way to one of non-interference in Indian social and religious practices. For instance, the British refrained from initiating reforms that could antagonize traditional Indian sentiments, such as legislation on widow remarriage or abolition of child marriage. The emphasis shifted towards maintaining stability and appeasing Indian elites.

The British also began to rely heavily on collaboration with the Indian aristocracy and princely states. During the revolt, many princely states had remained loyal to the British, and this loyalty was rewarded. The Doctrine of Lapse, introduced by Lord Dalhousie, was formally abandoned, and the British promised to respect the hereditary rights of Indian rulers. This alliance with traditional elites became a cornerstone of British governance.

Reorganization of the Army

The revolt exposed critical weaknesses in the structure of the British Indian Army, prompting comprehensive reforms. The British sought to prevent future mutinies by introducing systemic changes. The proportion of British troops to Indian soldiers was increased to maintain better control, with a ratio of 1 British soldier to every 2 Indian soldiers by the 1860s. Before the revolt, this ratio had been significantly lower.

The recruitment of Indian soldiers also became more selective. The British abandoned their earlier reliance on Bengal sepoys and shifted recruitment to communities considered more loyal and “martial,” such as the Sikhs, Gurkhas, and Pathans. The sepoy ranks were ethnically and religiously mixed to reduce the likelihood of collective rebellion. Artillery, considered a strategic arm, was exclusively reserved for European troops.

Additionally, the army’s organizational structure was reworked. Indian regiments were fragmented and dispersed across different regions to prevent large-scale coordination. The British also emphasized modernizing their military equipment and communication infrastructure, such as railways and telegraphs, to respond swiftly to potential uprisings.

Economic and Financial Policies

Economic policies after 1857 were directed primarily toward strengthening British interests, but there was also an acknowledgment of the need to placate Indian discontent. Large-scale investments were made in infrastructure projects such as railways, canals, and telegraph networks, which were initially designed to facilitate administrative efficiency and troop movement but later contributed to economic integration.

At the same time, British policies remained exploitative. India continued to serve as a market for British industrial goods and a source of raw materials. The Zamindari system, which extracted high agricultural taxes, persisted, leaving the rural population in poverty. Peasant grievances over land revenue policies, which had fueled the 1857 revolt, were addressed superficially, with no substantial reform to alleviate their hardships.

The introduction of limited economic opportunities for Indians in the form of jobs in railways, civil services, and industries was an indirect consequence of these policies. However, such opportunities were reserved for a small section of the Western-educated Indian middle class.

Political Representation and Governance

The revolt exposed the limits of Indian loyalty under colonial rule and the dangers of widespread alienation. To address this, the British adopted a policy of appeasement and co-option. They created limited opportunities for Indian participation in governance, although these were largely symbolic. For instance, the Indian Councils Act of 1861 allowed for the inclusion of a few Indians in legislative councils, but their role was advisory, with no real power to influence policy.

This system was designed to cultivate a loyal class of Western-educated Indians who could act as intermediaries between the British rulers and the broader Indian population. However, it also sowed the seeds of political consciousness among Indians, as this educated class began to demand greater representation and rights over time.

Social Policies and Divide-and-Rule Strategy

One of the most insidious changes in British policy was the deliberate use of divide-and-rule tactics to prevent unity among Indians. The British sought to accentuate divisions along religious, caste, and regional lines, recognizing that the unity displayed by Hindus and Muslims during the 1857 revolt posed a serious threat.

The British promoted the idea of Muslims as a separate political and cultural entity, leading to the emergence of the Muslim League in 1906. Similarly, caste-based distinctions were emphasized, and efforts were made to ally with the upper castes while sidelining lower-caste groups. This policy of fragmentation hindered the growth of a unified nationalist movement and ensured that Indian society remained divided and easier to control.

Impact on Indian Society

The changes in British policies after 1857 had far-reaching consequences for Indian society. While the revolt failed to achieve its immediate goal of overthrowing British rule, it succeeded in instilling a sense of resistance and nationalism among Indians. The cautious reforms introduced by the British helped to temporarily stabilize their rule, but they also created conditions for future demands for self-governance.

The emphasis on English education, the expansion of the press, and the inclusion of Indians in councils gradually empowered the Indian middle class, leading to the rise of leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Simultaneously, the growing economic exploitation and lack of genuine political representation fueled discontent among the masses, eventually culminating in the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

Conclusion

In the aftermath of the 1857 revolt, British policies toward India underwent a significant transformation. The emphasis on consolidation, appeasement, and control reflected the lessons learned from the rebellion. While these changes helped stabilize British rule for the next several decades, they also sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism. By altering the administrative, military, and social fabric of India, the British inadvertently created the conditions for the eventual rise of a unified movement for independence.

British colonial rulers opposed the growing Indian national consciousness in the late nineteenth century. British scholars dismissed India as a mere ‘geographical expression,’ with some doubting its ability to unify as a nation.

During the 19th century, with the evident growth and strengthening of nationalism, certain British scholars adopted a new stance, started giving credit to the British Raj for the growth of Indian nationalism. Contrary to this narrative, the truth was that Indian nationalism emerged as an unwelcome offspring of the Raj, an entity it initially neglected and later sought to suppress.

Thus, a more accurate perspective recognizes Indian nationalism as a product of a blend of diverse factors.

Factors

Growth of Vernacular Literature

The influence of Western education prompted the educated Indians to reflect the idea of liberty, freedom, and nationalism through the vernacular literature. They aimed at arousing the masses to oppose British rule being surcharged by the spirit of nationalism. 

• Bankim Chandra Chatterji’s Anand Math (which contained the song Vande Mataram) and Dinabandhu Mitra’s play Nil Darpan extorted tremendous influence upon the people and created anti-British feelings among them. 
• Bhartendu Harish Chandra’s play Bharat Durdasa reflected the miserable condition of the Indian masses under British rule.

Besides several eminent poets and writers in different languages, e.g., Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali, Vishnushastri Chiplunkar in Marathi, Lakshminath Bezbaroa in Assamese, Mohammad Hussain Azad and Altaf Hussain Hali in Urdu, etc. contributed a lot to rouse nationalism among the local people through their writings.

Rediscovery of India’s Past

Historical research in ancient Indian history, predominantly conducted by European scholars such as Max Muller, Monier William, Roth, and Session, and Indian scholars like R.G. Bhandarkar, R.L. Mitra, and later Swami Vivekananda, unveiled India’s rich cultural heritage. This portrayal showcased well-developed political, economic, and social institutions, thriving trade, a rich cultural heritage, and numerous cities in India’s past. 

• Archaeological excavations led by scholars like Marshall and Cunningham presented a compelling narrative of India’s past grandeur, akin to the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome. Scholars lauded the literary merit and profound psychological insights of the Vedas and Upanishads.  
• The European theory suggesting that the Indo-Aryans shared a common ethnic origin with European nations provided a psychological uplift for educated Indians. 

This newfound historical awareness instilled a sense of pride, confidence, and a renewed spirit of patriotism and nationalism among the educated elite. The gained self-respect and confidence empowered nationalists to dispel colonial myths, challenging the notion of India having a history of prolonged servility to foreign rulers.

Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia

Rise of the Urban Middle Class: British administrative and economic innovations gave birth to a new urban middle class in towns. This class, driven by the prospect of employment and a sense of prestige linked to English proficiency, swiftly embraced the language. Distinguished by education, a new social standing, and close ties with the ruling class, it emerged prominently.

• Modern India’s Leadership: This dynamic middle class became the driving force of modern India, ultimately infusing the entire nation with its spirit. It assumed a leadership role in all stages of growth for the Indian National Congress, reflecting its significance in shaping modern India.

Progressive Character of Socio-religious Reform Movements

In the 19th century, educated Indians critically re-evaluated their religious beliefs, customs, and social practices in light of Western science and philosophy. This led to various reform movements in Hinduism, such as the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and Theosophical Society. Similar movements also reformed Muslim, Sikh, and Parsi societies.

• Goals of Reform Movements: The objective of these reform movements was to eradicate religious evils like superstition, idolatry, polytheism, and hereditary priesthood, and social evils like caste discrimination, untouchability, and other inequalities that had fragmented Indian society, and advocating for societal recognition based on democratic principles and the ideas of individual and social equality, reason, enlightenment, and liberalism. 
• Impact of Reformers: These reformers advocated for human equality, individual liberty, and the abolition of social disparities. Their efforts transformed the mindset of Indians, awakening them from centuries of subjugation.

This endeavor had the outcome of uniting diverse sections of society and emerged as a significant factor in the development of Indian nationalism.

Impact of Contemporary Movements in the World

The prevailing strong currents of nationalist ideas in Europe and South America had a significant influence on Indian nationalism. 

• The emergence of several national states in South America following the decline of the Spanish and Portuguese empires, along with the national liberation movements in Greece, Italy, and notably Ireland in Europe, profoundly resonated with the sentiments of Indians.

Educated Indians, while touring Europe, were greatly inspired by these nationalist movements.

• For example, Surendranath Banerji delivered lectures on Joseph Mazzini and the “Young Italy” movement organized by him. 
• Lala Lajpat Rai frequently referenced the campaigns of Garibaldi and the activities of Carbonaris in his speeches and writings. 

Therefore, the developing nationalism in India received power from the developing nationalism in Europe.

Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers (Racialism)

The British, through a deliberate strategy of discrimination and segregation, aimed to perpetuate racial myths of white superiority, deeply injuring the sentiments of Indians. 

• Lytton’s policy aimed to decrease the maximum age limit for the I.C.S. examination from 21 to 19 years (1876).
• Holding a grand Delhi Durbar (1877) during a severe famine sparked criticism and resentment among the Indian population.
• The legislation imposed restrictions on the vernacular press (1878), curbing freedom of the press and expression.
• Enactment of the Arms Act (1878) imposed restrictions on the possession of arms, perceived as oppressive.
• The Ilbert Bill (1883) controversy followed, where Ripon attempted to eliminate  “judicial disqualification based on race distinctions” and grant equal powers to Indian members of the civil service.
• Due to strong opposition from the European community, the Ilbert Bill had to be modified, compromising its original intent. The organized agitation by Europeans to revoke the Ilbert Bill also served as a lesson for nationalists in advocating for their rights and demands.

A regrettable aftermath of the Rebellion of 1857 was the emergence of racial bitterness between the rulers and the ruled. Illustrations in the Punch portrayed Indians as a combination of half-gorilla and half-negro. 

• The Anglo-Indian bureaucracy adopted an attitude of arrogance and contempt toward the Indians, subscribing to the belief that the only effective argument with them was superior force. 
• This led to the development of a European social code of ethics and the formulation of the theory of a superior race. Europeans concluded that Indians belonged to an inferior race, devoid of trustworthiness, often branding them as a nation of liars, perjurers, and forgers.
•  The Anglo-Indian lobby produced literature promoting these racial stereotypes, particularly against the English. 

This narrow-minded perspective triggered a defensive reaction among educated Indians.

Economic Exploitation by the Britishers

The impact of British rule on the Indian economy was calamitous, as described by Jawaharlal Nehru, who noted that foreign political domination led to the rapid destruction of the economy India had built up, resulting in “poverty and degradation beyond measure.” Despite claims of social welfare by some British scholars, the actual objective of British policies was the systematic destruction of the traditional Indian economy.

British policies in India, spanning agriculture, heavy industry, finance, tariffs, foreign capital investment, foreign trade, and banking, were all designed to preserve the colonial economy. Despite British intentions, modern capitalist enterprise emerged in India in the 1860s, causing concern among British textile manufacturers. 

• Economic Motives Behind British Expansion: In the first half of the nineteenth century, Britain, in the throes of the Industrial Revolution, sought cheap raw materials and a market for its industrial products. 
• The controversy over Cotton Duties is a prime example, with British capitalists lobbying for changes that suited their sectional interests. 
• The £-Re-exchange ratio was manipulated to the disadvantage of Indian industry and foreign trade, making it evident that when British economic interests clashed with Indian economic development, the latter was sacrificed.
• Economic Stagnation: Extravagant civil and military administration, denial of high posts to Indians, mounting “Home Charges,” and the continuous drain of wealth from India resulted in the stagnation of the Indian economy. 
• Famine Crisis:: Periodic famines, with 24 occurring during the second half of the 19th century, claimed an estimated toll of 28 million lives.
  • Even during famines, food grain exports from India continued.
• Landlordism and Exploitation: The British, in collaboration with local money lenders, created absentee landlords, perpetuating the exploitation of the Indian masses and plunging them deeper into poverty.
  • The detrimental impact of British exploitation was evident in the Indian economy, as highlighted by Dadabhai Naoroji’s theory of agricultural decay and the criticisms of G. V. Josh and Ranade against the decline of Indian handicrafts.

The discriminatory economic and fiscal policies of the British sparked a sharp reaction and gave rise to economic nationalism in India.  Indian nationalists formulated the “theory of increasing poverty in India,” attributing it to Britain’s anti-India economic policies. This narrative linked poverty with foreign rule, fostering a hatred for foreign rule and a preference for Swadeshi goods and Swadeshi rule. This psychological shift provided a significant boost to the spirit of nationalism.

The 19th century in India was a period of profound socio-economic and political changes under British colonial rule. Among these transformations was the emergence of the middle class and a new elite class, groups that played a pivotal role in the intellectual, political, and cultural developments of the period. These groups were distinct from the traditional aristocracy and peasantry, representing a new socio-economic force shaped by colonial policies, education, and economic changes. Their attitudes toward social reform evolved significantly over the decades, particularly after 1870, as they navigated the challenges of modernity and tradition.

Factors Responsible for the Rise of the Middle and New Elite Class

1. British Educational Policies:
The cornerstone of the middle class’s emergence was the introduction of Western education. Starting with the Charter Act of 1813, British policies aimed to produce a class of Indians proficient in English to serve as intermediaries in administration and commerce. Lord Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835) emphasized English as the medium of instruction, creating a generation of Indians well-versed in Western thought, science, and philosophy. Institutions like Hindu College (1817) in Calcutta and the universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1857) produced a Western-educated intelligentsia that formed the nucleus of the new middle class.

2. Expansion of Administrative and Professional Opportunities:
The British administrative framework expanded significantly in the 19th century, creating new job opportunities. Indians were recruited into subordinate positions in the Indian Civil Service, legal professions, railways, postal services, and education. This professional class, though subordinate to Europeans, gained social prestige and financial security, becoming the backbone of the new elite.

3. Growth of Urban Centers:
Urbanization played a crucial role in the emergence of the middle class. Cities like Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, and Lahore became administrative, industrial, and cultural hubs under colonial rule. These cities provided opportunities in trade, commerce, and public services, fostering the growth of a professional and mercantile middle class.

4. Economic Changes:
The Industrial Revolution in Britain had a profound impact on India. While it de-industrialized traditional Indian industries, it created opportunities in sectors like railways, tea plantations, and mining. Indian entrepreneurs, particularly from communities like the Marwaris, Parsis, and Chettiars, amassed wealth by engaging in trade and industry, forming a segment of the new elite.

5. Social and Religious Reforms:
The early 19th century witnessed a wave of reform movements, such as the Brahmo Samaj (founded by Raja Rammohan Roy) and the Arya Samaj (led by Dayananda Saraswati), which emphasized rationalism, education, and social justice. These movements inspired educated Indians to challenge orthodox practices, creating a class of progressive leaders committed to societal improvement.

6. Press and Print Media:
The growth of vernacular and English-language newspapers and journals, such as The Hindu, Amrita Bazar Patrika, and Kesari, helped shape public opinion and fostered political awareness among the middle class. These publications became platforms for debating social, economic, and political issues, amplifying the voice of the new elite.

Attitude Toward Social Reform After 1870

After 1870, the middle and elite classes became increasingly involved in addressing social issues, but their approach was shaped by their specific socio-political context. Their attitudes toward reform evolved in three broad phases:

1. Reform-Oriented Phase (1870s–1890s):
The middle class and elite were initially enthusiastic about social reform. Many were influenced by Western ideas of liberalism, rationalism, and equality, as well as the earlier reformist traditions of figures like Rammohan Roy. Their focus was on eradicating social evils such as caste discrimination, child marriage, sati, and the denial of women’s rights.

Leaders like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar championed widow remarriage, while reformist groups like the Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj campaigned against caste oppression and emphasized education for women. Legal reforms, such as the Age of Consent Act of 1891, which raised the minimum age of marriage for girls, were often the result of their efforts.

However, this phase also witnessed resistance from orthodox groups, who perceived these reforms as an attack on Indian traditions. The reformists, while progressive, were careful to align their advocacy with Indian cultural values to avoid alienating the broader population.

2. Rise of Nationalist Concerns (1890s–1920s):
By the late 19th century, the focus of the middle and elite classes began to shift from social reform to political reform and nationalism. The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 provided a platform for addressing political grievances against colonial rule. Many leaders, such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, emerged from the ranks of the middle class.

Their emphasis on nationalism influenced their attitude toward social reform. They argued that political independence should take precedence over internal social issues, which could be addressed after achieving self-rule. Tilak, for instance, opposed the Age of Consent Act, viewing it as unnecessary British interference in Indian society.

While the reformist zeal did not vanish, it took a back seat to the struggle for independence. This shift reflected the growing tension between the reformist and nationalist priorities of the middle class.

3. Rise of Conservatism and Pragmatism (Post-1920s):
After 1920, the middle class and new elite became more conservative in their approach to social reform. This was partly due to the influence of leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, who emphasized a return to Indian traditions and values. Gandhi’s approach to social issues, such as untouchability, differed from earlier reformers; he sought to address these problems within the framework of Indian culture rather than adopting Western solutions.

The elite also became increasingly pragmatic, recognizing the limitations of colonial rule in implementing reforms. They focused on self-help initiatives, such as establishing schools, libraries, and cooperative societies, to uplift marginalized communities. While they supported gradual reform, their efforts were often constrained by the complexities of balancing tradition, reform, and the nationalist agenda.

Conclusion

The rise of the middle and new elite class in 19th-century India was a transformative development driven by education, economic changes, and the expansion of professional opportunities under British rule. Their attitudes toward social reform reflected their complex position as intermediaries between tradition and modernity. While their initial efforts focused on addressing social evils and promoting education, the growing nationalist sentiment after 1870 shifted their priorities toward political reform. This dual commitment to reform and nationalism defined their legacy, as they laid the groundwork for both India’s modern social institutions and the struggle for independence.

Policy of Paramountcy means supremacy of British authority over Indian affairs.The policy emphasises Governor General’s right to intervene in the internal affairs of the Indian princely states, and to annex them if required. Lord Warren Hastings instituted the policy of Paramountcy who was Governor-General of India between 1813 to 1823.

The policy of Paramountcy: Concept

• A new policy of “paramountcy” was instituted under Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823).
• The company maintained that because its power was preeminent or superior, it could annex or threaten to annex any Indian state.
• This was considered as the reference groundwork for other later British policies.
• The East India Company maintained that its powers were stronger than those of Indian states and that its powers were supreme or paramount, according to the Policy of Paramountcy.
• Because of Russian invasion fears, the British shifted control in the northwest during these decades.
• Between 1838 and 1842, the British fought a long war with Afghanistan, establishing an indirect company administration in the country.
• Sindh was conquered, Punjab was annexed after two prolonged wars in 1849 ruled by Maharaja Ranjit Singh

Evolution

The evolution of British paramountcy occurred through various means such as the policy of ring-fencing, subordinate isolation, and subordinate union. The British developed the concept of paramountcy through a variety of tactics, including direct annexation via wars and a subsidiary alliance structure via treaties. Over the course of two centuries, the British aristocracy has gone through three distinct stages:

First Phase

• Between 1757 and 1813, the policy of ‘Ring Fence’ or non-interference was implemented.
• During this time, they did their best to stay within the confines of a ring-fence. In other words, they attempted to strengthen their position in a specific region by refraining from interfering in other people’s concerns.
• They pursued this policy mostly due to the facts on the ground. Despite being one of India’s most formidable forces at the time, the British were not yet powerful enough to take on all or even part of the Indian powers at the same time.
• During this initial phase, however, the English began to emerge as the dominant power in India.

Second Phase

• The policy of subordinate isolation was implemented during the second 45-year period (1813-1858).
• During this time, they ascended to the position of supreme power, claiming dominance over all native states. They did not, however, claim Princely India as part of their Indian dominion.
• Furthermore, as the need for British Imperialism grew, there was a steady move from subordinate collaboration to annexation policy during this time. The policy of subordinate cooperation gave way to the policy of annexation during this 21-year period (1834-58).
• This approach, initially announced by the Court of Directors in 1834 and again repeated by them in 1841, was followed by all Governor Generals from William Bentinck to Dalhousie.
• Despite the fact that there were multiple precedents prior to Dalhousie, he pursued annexation with vigour and zeal, even establishing ideas such as the doctrine of lapse and maxim of the benefit of the governed (Maladministration of government).
• He seized Punjab through war during his eight-year reign. He also conquered ten states, starting with Satara and ending with Nagpur, using the doctrine of lapse.
• He used the excuse of maladministration or misgovernance in the case of Awadh, which was the British’s last annexation in India.

Third Phase

• Following the insurrection of 1857, the British began the policy of sub-ordinate unity, which lasted until 1947.
• Following the 1857 insurrection, the British decided to abandon their annexation policy in favour of protecting the original states.
• During the revolt, the vast majority of native rulers remained loyal to the British and even assisted them in defeating the revolt.
• As a result of the revolt, the British learned an essential lesson: keeping the original state would be far more beneficial to them than annexing these states.
• The British will now justify their new approach by claiming that they now have an empire in India that includes not only British India but also princely India.
• As a result , annexing something that already belongs to them is pointless. The fact that there was no more useful land to be annexed in India was also a major factor in the refusal to add any more territory.
• The Queen’s proclamation of 1858 outlined this new policy of subordinate unity, which was fully adopted by the Government of India Act, 1858.
• The local rulers were now offered eternal life in writing in exchange for their loyalty and effectiveness. Due to the failure of naturally born male successors, 160 of the 562 native monarchs of the period were given special permission to go for adoption.
• Furthermore, the English showed their hesitation to conquer any native state in the notable examples of Baroda (1874) and Manipur (1881).
• However, they intervened in both situations to demonstrate that they would not tolerate either disloyalty or inefficiency.

The policy of Paramountcy: Resistance of States

• The minor state of Kitoor, which is now part of Karnataka, disputed this approach.
• Rani Channamma spearheaded the resistance movement against the British.
• Rani Channamma was apprehended in 1824 and died in 1829 while being imprisoned.
• Chennamma was born in Kakati, Karnataka’s Belagavi district.
• When she married Raja Mallasarja of the Desai family, she became the queen of Kitturu (now Karnataka). They had a son who died in 1824. She adopted another child, Shivalingappa, after her son died and proclaimed him heir to the crown. The British East India Company, however, refused to accept this because of the Doctrine of Lapse, an annexation doctrine created by the British East India Company.
• Rayanna, a poor chowkidar from Sangoli in Kitoor, led the resistance.
• In 1830, the British apprehended him and executed him.
• Rayanna, a poor chowkidar from Sangoli in Kitoor, led the resistance,in 1830, the British apprehended him and executed him.

Conclusion

The system of paramountcy was just a system of limited sovereignty on the surface. In reality, it was a means for the Imperial State to recruit a solid base of support. The Imperial State’s support removed the need for rulers to seek legitimacy through patronage or discussion with their people. The colonial state turned India’s populace into subjects rather than citizens, both directly and indirectly through the princes.

Edward Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton, also known as Lord Lytton, was an English politician who was Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880. Because of his handling of the Great Indian Famine of 1876-1878 and the Second Anglo-Afghan War, he is widely regarded as a ruthless viceroy.

Lord Lytton

• Lytton was born on November 8, 1831, in London, England, to Edward Bulwer-Lytton and Rosina Doyle Wheeler. His mother was an outspoken supporter of women’s rights, which put her at odds with his conservative father.
• In 1849, Lord Lytton joined the diplomatic corps as an attaché to his uncle, Sir Henry Bulwer.
• His diplomatic career began in earnest in 1852, when he was assigned to Florence. He worked in a number of other European cities, including St. Petersburg, Vienna, and Paris, before being appointed British Consul General in Belgrade in 1860.
• By 1876, Lytton had been appointed Governor-General and Viceroy of India.

Viceroy of India

• Lytton’s viceroyalty was characterized by ruthlessness in both domestic and foreign affairs.
• At the time, India was in the grip of a famine caused by crop failure in 1876. In response, he called a durbar and declared Queen Victoria to be the “Empress of India.”
• His administration’s failure to respond contributed to between 6.1 million and 10.3 million deaths.
• Historians speculate that his belief in Social Darwinism contributed to his negative attitude toward Indian peasants suffering from famine.

Lytton and free trade

• Because it suited the interests of an industrially advanced nation, free trade had become a passion among ruling circles in England until this time.
• Lancashire cotton manufacturers were envious of new cotton mills opening in Bombay and sought to demolish them.
• They criticized the levies imposed on goods exported to India. They referred to this as a defensive measure against the Laissez Faire.
• The British government passed the Act and notified the Indian government that duties would be repealed when financial conditions permitted.
• Despite India’s poor financial situation as a result of the Famine, Lytton abolished import duties on 29 items such as sugar, sheetings, and so on (even against the wishes of his council)

Second Anglo-Afghan War

• During Lord Lytton’s tenure in Afghanistan, the Russian and British Empires engaged in a series of political maneuvers for influence in Central Asia.
• Afghanistan was an important player in this game because its location served as a buffer between the two empires.
• Lord Lytton made friendly overtures to Afghanistan’s Amir, Sher Ali Khan. Shel Ali Khan was thought to be pro-Russian, and no effort was spared to persuade him otherwise.
• Sir Neville Bowles Chamberlain was sent as an envoy to Afghanistan in September 1878, but he was denied an audience.
• Lytton planned an invasion of Afghanistan after exhausting all diplomatic options, resulting in the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
• Britain won all of the battles, and the Treaty of Gandamak established a more British-friendly Amir as the ruler of Afghanistan.

Vernacular Press Act

• People were dissatisfied with Lytton’s unpopular policies, and the native vernacular press mocked him. He drafted the Vernacular Press Act to curtail the wings of the Vernacular Press.
• By virtue of this act, District Magistrates were empowered, without prior permission from the government, to compel a printer and publisher of any kind to enter into a bond, undertaking not to publish anything that might incite discontent against the government.
• The magistrate was also given the authority to deposit security, which could be confiscated if the printer violated the bond.
• If the printer violates again, his press may be seized.
• The worst aspect of this Act was that it discriminated against Native Vernacular Press and loyal Anglo-Indian Press and was dubbed the Gagging Act.
• It was specifically aimed at Amrita Bazaar Patrika, which had turned English overnight in order to avoid being caught up in the act.

Financial Reforms

• Famine struck Bombay, Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, and parts of Central India and Punjab. A population of 5.8 crores was affected, and 50 lakh people died in a single year, according to Romesh Dutt.
• The government made only half-hearted efforts to assist the famine-stricken. The government’s famine machinery was insufficient.
• In 1878, Richard Strachey established the Famine Commission, which opposed the provision of gratuitous assistance and advocated for able-bodied people to be given jobs at wages sufficient to maintain their health. For this, he recommended the construction of a railway and irrigation works. (This also laid the groundwork for famine policy.)

Royal Titles Act, 1876 & Grand Darbar of 1877

• The Royal Titles Act, passed by the British Parliament, bestowed the title of Kaiser-i-Hind, or Queen Empress of India, on Queen Victoria.
• On January 1, 1877, a Grand Darbar was held in Delhi to announce the assumption of the Title by the people and princes of India.
• Unfortunately, Darbar was held at a time when many parts of the country were suffering from famine. Lytton lavished millions on pomp while allowing people to starve. This fueled a current of national humiliation among Indians.
• The Calcutta Journal opined, “Nero was fiddling while Rome burned.”
• Darbar, on the other hand, proved to be a blessing in disguise. Despite the fact that it demoted the Princes from allies to feudatories the author of the Bill unintentionally and against his will raised the status of Indian subjects of the Queen to that of citizens of the British Empire, encouraging people like SN Banerjee to form an Indian association to address their grievances.

Conclusion

Lytton was, without a doubt, a thinker, but he was a failure as a ruler of India. Experts point to Lytton and Curzon as two viceroys who did more harm than good to India and England’s position in India than any other men. Lytton’s unpopular and repressive policy instilled discontent in the masses. The unrest had spread and was becoming dangerous. His policies laid the groundwork for the emergence of nationalism in India.

The formation and growth of the middle class in India after 1858 was a complex socio-economic process shaped by the impact of British colonial rule, Western education, and evolving economic conditions. This emerging class became a defining feature of Indian society in the late 19th century, influencing social reform movements, nationalist politics, and the cultural landscape. The rise of this middle class can be traced to a confluence of factors that created opportunities for upward mobility and fostered new identities distinct from the traditional elite and the rural masses.

Colonial Governance and Administrative Reforms

The most significant factor in the growth of the middle class after 1858 was the expansion of the colonial administrative apparatus. After the Revolt of 1857, the British Crown took over the governance of India from the East India Company. This shift led to the creation of a highly bureaucratic structure to administer the vast colony, requiring educated Indians to fill subordinate roles in the civil service, judiciary, and local governance.

The Indian Civil Service (ICS) was reorganized after 1858 to include Indians, though they were limited to subordinate positions. While the highest ranks of administration remained dominated by British officers, the lower echelons—clerks, revenue officials, and magistrates—were increasingly staffed by Indians. Employment in these roles offered a degree of prestige, financial security, and social mobility, attracting educated individuals to these positions.

The introduction of local self-governance through measures like the Indian Councils Act of 1861 and the Municipal Councils Act of 1882 created further opportunities for Indians to participate in governance. Although these councils had limited powers, they required educated representatives, fostering the growth of a class of professionals with administrative experience and political awareness.

Expansion of Western Education

The establishment of a modern education system was a cornerstone in the rise of the Indian middle class. After 1858, the British government emphasized the need for an English-educated workforce to manage colonial administration and commerce. Institutions such as the universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (established in 1857) and schools founded by Christian missionaries became hubs of Western education.

The curriculum emphasized English language proficiency, Western science, and humanities, which enabled Indians to gain employment in government service, law, journalism, and teaching. Education also exposed Indians to ideas of liberalism, democracy, and individual rights, which shaped their worldview and motivated them to seek reforms in Indian society.

The Wood’s Dispatch of 1854, often referred to as the Magna Carta of English education in India, laid the groundwork for this system, promoting secular education and the establishment of a network of schools and colleges. While the primary motive was to create a class of loyal and efficient clerks for British administration, this policy inadvertently fostered the growth of a progressive, articulate middle class.

Urbanization and Growth of Urban Centers

The post-1858 period saw significant urbanization driven by colonial policies, the development of infrastructure, and economic changes. Cities such as Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, and Delhi became administrative, industrial, and cultural hubs under British rule. These urban centers provided employment opportunities in the colonial bureaucracy, railways, trading houses, and newly emerging industries.

Urbanization also fostered a cosmopolitan environment, where people from different regions, castes, and religions interacted, creating a sense of shared identity among the middle class. The concentration of educational institutions, libraries, and newspapers in these cities further contributed to the intellectual growth of this group.

Industrial and Economic Changes

The economic transformations introduced by British rule had a profound impact on Indian society. While colonial policies led to the decline of traditional industries, they also created new opportunities in sectors such as railways, banking, plantations, and trade.

The construction of railways, beginning in the 1850s, played a dual role in facilitating colonial extraction and integrating India’s economy. It also created a demand for engineers, accountants, and clerks, providing employment opportunities for the middle class. Similarly, the expansion of the tea and indigo plantations in Assam and Bengal required educated Indians to manage these enterprises.

The emergence of Indian entrepreneurs in sectors like textiles, banking, and shipping also contributed to the growth of the middle class. Communities such as the Marwaris, Gujaratis, and Parsis established businesses, creating a class of urban industrialists and traders. Although this group was distinct from the salaried middle class, their economic activities helped create a broader environment of modernization and social change.

Role of the Press and Print Media

The rapid expansion of the press and print media in the late 19th century was both a result and a catalyst for the rise of the middle class. Newspapers and journals in English and vernacular languages, such as The Hindu, Amrita Bazar Patrika, and Kesari, provided platforms for educated Indians to engage in debates on social, political, and cultural issues.

The press helped shape public opinion, promoted social reform, and disseminated ideas of nationalism. It also created employment opportunities for writers, editors, and publishers, further expanding the ranks of the middle class. This intellectual activity fostered a sense of shared purpose among educated Indians, reinforcing their identity as a distinct socio-economic group.

Social and Religious Reform Movements

The 19th century was also marked by a series of social and religious reform movements, which played a vital role in shaping the middle class’s identity. Movements such as the Brahmo Samaj (founded by Raja Rammohan Roy), the Arya Samaj (led by Dayananda Saraswati), and the Aligarh Movement (led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan) emphasized rationalism, education, and the rejection of outdated practices like caste discrimination and child marriage.

These reform movements were often led by members of the middle class, who sought to modernize Indian society while preserving its cultural essence. The emphasis on education and social justice resonated with the aspirations of the middle class, encouraging its further growth and consolidation.

Impact of the Middle Class on Social and Political Change

The emergence of the middle class after 1858 had profound implications for Indian society and politics. This group became the primary driver of social reform, advocating for issues like women’s education, widow remarriage, and the abolition of caste-based discrimination. Reformers such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule, and Kandukuri Veeresalingam championed these causes, challenging orthodox practices and promoting progressive ideas.

Politically, the middle class laid the groundwork for the nationalist movement. Organizations such as the Indian National Congress (founded in 1885) were dominated by English-educated professionals who articulated the demands for greater representation, self-governance, and economic reforms. Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale emerged from this class, using their education and exposure to Western ideas to challenge colonial policies.

Conclusion

The rise of the middle class in India after 1858 was the result of a combination of administrative, educational, economic, and social factors introduced by British rule. This class became a vital agent of change, influencing the trajectory of Indian society through its advocacy for reform, modernization, and nationalism. While their emergence was rooted in the colonial framework, their efforts transcended its limitations, paving the way for India’s political and cultural renaissance in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The middle class not only shaped India’s resistance to colonial rule but also laid the foundation for its transformation into a modern nation-state.