The political condition of India on the eve of Babur’s invasion in 1526 was marked by fragmentation, disunity, and weakness among regional powers. This period, often referred to as the late Sultanate era, was a time when the Delhi Sultanate was in decline, and various regional kingdoms were vying for supremacy. The absence of a strong central authority, coupled with internal conflicts among Indian rulers, created conditions that were conducive to Babur’s success in establishing the Mughal Empire.

Weakness of the Delhi Sultanate

By the early 16th century, the Delhi Sultanate, once a powerful and centralized empire, had been severely weakened. The last ruler of the Sultanate, Ibrahim Lodi, faced widespread discontent from his nobles and governors. Ibrahim’s autocratic rule, inability to maintain loyalty among his subordinates, and his conflicts with his own family contributed to the erosion of his authority. Prominent governors such as Daulat Khan Lodi of Punjab openly rebelled and invited Babur to intervene in Indian politics. This disunity within the Sultanate significantly weakened its ability to resist external invasions.

Fragmented Regional Kingdoms

India was politically fragmented, with several regional kingdoms operating independently of the Delhi Sultanate. Prominent states like Mewar, Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal, and the Deccan Sultanates were preoccupied with their own rivalries and territorial ambitions. This fragmentation prevented a united defense against Babur. For instance, Rana Sanga of Mewar, one of the strongest regional powers, saw Babur as an ally against the Lodis and underestimated the threat he posed. This lack of unity among Indian rulers allowed Babur to confront them individually rather than as a united force.

Military Inferiority of Indian Powers

The Indian armies were technologically and strategically inferior to Babur’s forces. Babur introduced modern warfare techniques, including the effective use of artillery and firearms, which were relatively new to Indian warfare. Indian rulers relied heavily on traditional methods of combat, such as cavalry charges and elephant-based warfare, which were no match for Babur’s disciplined and technologically advanced army. His innovative use of Tulughma (flanking tactics) and the Araba system (use of mobile cannon units) during the First Battle of Panipat (1526) proved decisive in defeating Ibrahim Lodi’s larger but less organized forces.

Internal Rivalries and Betrayals

Internal rivalries among Indian rulers further facilitated Babur’s success. Key figures such as Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga initially supported Babur or sought alliances with him to achieve their own objectives. However, once Babur established his dominance, these alliances turned into rivalries. The Indian rulers’ failure to unite against Babur and their willingness to ally with an outsider for short-term gains highlighted the lack of a cohesive national vision.

Economic Conditions and Declining Administration

The economic condition of the Delhi Sultanate was in decline, which weakened its ability to sustain a strong military and administration. The constant wars, heavy taxation, and administrative inefficiencies had created widespread discontent among the populace. Babur capitalized on this discontent by presenting himself as a liberator and a legitimate ruler, appealing to sections of society dissatisfied with the Lodis.

Babur’s Leadership and Vision

Babur’s own leadership qualities, including his charisma, military acumen, and strategic thinking, played a significant role in his success. He was a seasoned warrior, having honed his skills in Central Asia, and possessed the ability to inspire loyalty among his troops. His Memoirs (Baburnama) reveal his understanding of Indian politics and his strategic adaptability, which allowed him to exploit the weaknesses of his adversaries effectively.

Impact of Babur’s Invasion

The political disunity and military inferiority of Indian powers not only facilitated Babur’s victory but also laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire, which would dominate India for the next three centuries. The defeat of Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of Mughal rule. Babur’s success demonstrated the critical importance of modern military technology and united leadership, lessons that Indian rulers failed to grasp during this period.

In conclusion, the political condition of India on the eve of Babur’s invasion was characterized by fragmentation, disunity, and declining central authority, which created a power vacuum. The regional rivalries, internal betrayals, and technological inferiority of Indian powers made it easier for Babur to conquer and establish his dominance. His invasion marks a pivotal moment in Indian history, as it ushered in a new era of centralized imperial rule under the Mughals.

Nasir al-Din Muhammad also known as Humayun, was the second emperor of the Mughal Empire, ruling over territory that is now Eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northern India, and Bangladesh from 1530 to 1540 and again from 1555 to 1556. Humayun succeeded his father to the throne of Delhi and the Mughal lands in the Indian subcontinent in December 1530. When Humayun came to power at the age of 22, he was an inexperienced monarch. Humayun’s worst enemies were the Afghans. They were the masters of Delhi only a few years ago, and they have not given up their desire to reclaim it.

Causes of Conflict

• Babur had taken Delhi’s throne from the Afghans. As a result, they were hostile to Humayun.
• Sher Shah Suri was an Afghan as well.
• Sher Shah cemented his authority in Bihar while Humayun was busy battling Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• Sher Shah was the proud owner of Chunar’s stronghold and had united the majority of the Afghan nobles under his banner.
• He assaulted Bengal twice and demanded a large sum of money from the ruler.
• Humayun knew that subduing Sher Shah was required.

Afghan Struggle

Humayun and Sher Shah met with each other three times, in Chunar, Chausa, and Kannauj.

Siege of Chunar (1532)

• Humayun was frightened by Sher Shah’s success in Bengal and Bihar.
• Instead of heading straight to Bengal, where he could have enlisted the support of Bengal’s monarch, Humayun spent six months besieging the fort of Chunar in Bihar, which was under Sher Shah’s control.
• Sher Shah made a fully voluntary submission after seeing his weakness, and Humayun captured the fort of Chunar.

Battle of Chausa (1539)

• For approximately six years, there appeared to be no major confrontations between Sher Shah and Humayun. Sher Shah’s position grew significantly during this time.
• Humayun travelled to Bengal on the behest of the ruler of Bengal and spent around eight months there in 1538.
• Sher Shah conquered a number of cities over these eight months, including Banaras, Sambhal, and others. Meanwhile, Hindal, Humayun’s brother, declared himself Emperor of Delhi.
• Humayun chose to return from Bengal to Agra. Sher Shah, however, blocked his way at Chausa, the Bihar-Uttar Pradesh border.
• For three months, the two armies stood facing each other. This created tension between both armies. Mughals were tricked.
• Sher Shah devised a strategy at this point. He stated that he was going up against a tribal chief who had been disobeying him.
• In the early hours of June 26, 1539, after marching a few miles in that direction, he returned unexpectedly in the night and attacked Humayun’s army from three sides. Humayun was wounded and lost the battle.
• To save his life, he threw his horse into a river and was saved from drowning by a water carrier. As a result, Sher Shah Suri declared himself a Sultan and captured West Bengal.

Battle of Kannauj (1540)

• Humayun arrived in Agra after his defeat at Chausa and sought support from his brothers. All of the brothers, however, were unable to unite.
• Humayun gathered a large army, primarily made up of young recruits, and marched towards Kannauj.
• Sher Shah has already set up camp in Kannauj and won this battle. The success of Sher Shah was crucial.
• Humayun escaped and pushed his way to Agra.
• As a result, Humayun had to spend roughly fifteen years in exile after his defeat at Kannauj, from 1540 to 1554.

Causes of Defeat of Humayun and Sher Shah’s Success

• Humayun’s inability to realize the essence of Afghan authority and lack of organizational skills.
• His brothers were unhelpful and Humayun was unable to maintain consistent effort.
• Sher Shah’s diplomatic capitulation and Humayun’s release of Chunar.
• Humayun wasted most of the time in celebration and procrastination.
• Sher Shah launched an unexpected attack against Humayun’s troops in Kannauj.
• Humayun’s army lacked command cohesion.

Conclusion

Humayun and Afghans under the command of Sher Shah Suri fought the Second Afghan-Mughal war (1532-1540). Sher Shah Suri was a prominent Afghan nobleman who desired to take control of Delhi and Agra. He consolidated his stronghold in Bihar and Bengal while Humayun was engaged in conquering Gujarat. He also cut off Humayun’s connection to Agra. Sher Shah defeated the Mughal army in the Battle of Kanauj later that year. In 1540, the Afghans won and all Mughals were banished from India. Sher Shah Suri claimed to be the king of Delhi and Agra.

Babur Biography – The Founder of the Mughal Empire: Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire and father of the Mughal emperor Humayun, was born on February 14, 1483. Recognized as one of the important Mughal rulers, he achieved remarkable victories for solidifying the dynasty’s presence in Delhi, surpassing the unsuccessful attempts of various sultanates to establish a stable rule. Under his leadership, the Mughal Empire exerted its dominance over India for almost three centuries.

Who were Mughals and Who was Babur?

Mughals belonged to the powerful branch of Turks, who were called Chagatai, named after second son of Genghis Khan, very eminent Mongol leader. The foundation of Mughal empire in India was laid by Babur, who belonged to Chagatai Turk.

Overview on Babur

Early Life of Babur – The Founder of the Mughal Empire

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad, also known by the names “Babur” or “Lion,” came into the world on February 14, 1483, as a member of the Timurid royal dynasty in Andijan, which is situated in present-day Uzbekistan.

1. Babur’s father, Umar Sheikh Mirza, was the Emir of Ferghana, and his mother, Qutlaq Nigar Khanum, was the daughter of Moghuli King Yunus Khan.
2. By the time Babur was born, the last Mongol ancestors had married into Turkic and Persian communities, blending into the local culture. Influenced significantly by Persia, they had embraced Islam, with the majority adopting the mystical Sufi-infused variant of Sunni Islam.
3. In 1494, the Emir of Ferghana passed away unexpectedly, leading to 11-year-old Babur taking the throne. However, his rule faced threats, as several uncles and relatives conspired to overthrow him.
4. Driven by the belief that a strong offense is the best defense, the young emir embarked on a quest for expansion. By 1497, his ambition had landed him at the gates of the storied Silk Road city of Samarkand, which he promptly conquered. However, his bold move left him exposed to internal threats. In his absence, his uncles and the lords of Andijan seized the opportunity to rise in revolt.

Babur and the Mughal Empire

At a young age, barely in his teens, Babur ascended the throne of Fergana in 1494 CE. However, his reign was short-lived. In the face of competing claims to the throne, fueled by the belief in divine rights in Genghis Khan’s lineage, Babur was ousted by his cousins.

Forced to flee his homeland of Fergana, Babur, a descendant of the legendary conqueror Timur, sought refuge in Afghanistan. Though exiled, his ambition remained undimmed. He dreamed not only of reclaiming his father’s kingdom but also of restoring and expanding the vast empire once under Timur’s dominion.

1. Babar’s growing power attracted many of Lodi’s discontented subjects, including family members, military personnel, and government officials. Armed with gunpowder and the support of these allies, Babur faced Ibrahim Lodi’s vastly superior army at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Despite the odds, Babur’s strategic use of artillery and innovative tactics secured a decisive victory, marking a turning point in his pursuit of empire.
2. With Agra as his new capital, Babur set his sights on expanding his dominion over northern India. However, his ambition met with fierce resistance from the Hindu Rajput princes, who refused to acknowledge his rule. The ensuing conflicts cast a shadow over his efforts to solidify his nascent kingdom.
3. In 1527 CE, Babur achieved a pivotal victory against the Rajput princes, led by Rana Sanga, at the Battle of Khanwa. Though this triumph did not bring immediate peace, it marked a significant milestone in consolidating his burgeoning empire and weakening Rajput resistance.

Babur’s Military Conquests

Some important military conquests of Babur are as follows:

Battle of Panipat

• Prior to his full-fledged invasion, Babur conducted four reconnaissance missions to India, gaining valuable knowledge of the land and its people. This paved the way for his grander ambitions, particularly after receiving invitations from two powerful figures: Maharana Sangram Singh of Mewar and Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, who both sought his aid in overthrowing the ruling Sultan Ibrahim Lodi.
• The Battle of Panipat was fought on April 21, 1526, on the plains of Panipat, north of Delhi. Despite facing an overwhelming force of approximately 100,000 soldiers under Ibrahim Lodi, Babur’s army, with only 12,000 actively engaged warriors, emerged victorious in the First Battle of Panipat.
• This remarkable feat stemmed from Babur’s strategic brilliance and innovative tactics. He skillfully employed the Rumi (Ottoman) strategy of war, then a revolutionary approach, and strategically deployed his limited forces. Notably, Babur’s effective use of cannons, a cutting-edge weapon in the 16th century, proved instrumental in securing his victory.

Battle of Khanwa

• Though initially inviting Babur to aid him against Ibrahim Lodi, Rana Sanga grew wary of Babur’s ambition to remain in India. Recognizing the potential threat, Rana Sanga formed a confederacy of Rajput princes, uniting them against the foreign invader.
• The year 1527 witnessed a clash of titans at the Battle of Khanwa near Fatehpur Sikri, where Babur and the formidable Rana Sanga, a legendary warrior who had lost an arm and an eye in battle, faced off. Despite commanding a larger army, Rana Sanga was ultimately defeated by Babur’s superior weaponry and tactical prowess. This victory, more significant than the Battle of Panipat, cemented the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India.

Battle of Chanderi

• By 1527, Babur had established a foothold in India, shifting his capital from Kabul to Delhi. Chanderi, strategically located on the border of Malwa and Bundelkhand, was a crucial political and economic hub ruled by Rajput king Medini Rai. Despite being Rana Sanga’s close ally and fighting alongside him at Khanwa, Medini Rai evaded capture and escaped Rana Sanga’s control.
• Seeking to expand his empire, Babur offered Medini Rai the Shamsabad fort in exchange for Chanderi. However, the offer was rejected. Determined to conquer the city, Babur engaged in the Battle of Chanderi on January 20, 1528, facing the Rajput forces. Medini Rai remained defiant, but ultimately, Chanderi fell to Babur on January 29, 1528.

Battle of Ghaghra

Following his victory over the Rajputs, Babur decisively defeated the Afghans at the Battle of Ghagra in 1529, solidifying his control over northern India. His vast empire encompassed Kabul, Agra, Awadh, Gwalior, Bihar, and portions of Rajasthan and Punjab. Choosing Delhi as his capital, Babur officially established the Mughal Empire in India.

Rana Sangha and Babur

Rana Sangha of Mewar was one of the greatest Rajput ruler and gave one of the toughest resistance for Babur’ s extension of rule in India. On March 16, 1527, Rana Sangha along with other rulers like Marwar, Amber, Gwalior, Ajmer and Chanderi and also Sultan Mahmood Lodi, met in Kanhwa for decisive battle, aim was preventing for imposition of another foreign repression on Babur and then he took the title of “Ghazi”. On May 6, 1529, Babur met with allied Afghans of Bihar and Bengal and with this battle, Babur occupied important portion of northern India.

Babur’s Succession and End of Life

• In the autumn of 1530, illness struck Babur. Sensing his imminent demise, his brother-in-law conspired with certain nobles within the Mughal court to usurp the throne. Their ambition aimed to bypass Humayun, Babur’s designated heir and eldest son, and seize power for themselves.
• Hearing of his father’s illness, Humayun raced to Agra to claim his rightful place on the throne. Sadly, soon after his arrival, Humayun himself fell gravely ill.
• After Babur’s death at the age of 47 on December 26, 1530, Humayun inherited a shaky empire besieged by internal and external adversaries.

Achievements of Babur (1526-1530)

Babur is considered to be the founder of Mughal rule in India. Before him India was split up into many pretty independent states which were often in a state of internecine warfare. Babur’s great achievement was that he crushed the independence of these States, subjugated them and built a significant empire. All this he accomplished in a short period of four years.

• Conquest of the Punjab – Babur the king of Kabul led serious expeditions to Hindustan but it was not until the close of 1525 that he seriously embarked upon he task of conquering our country. With a large force that he possessed , he marched towards the Punjab, Daulat Khan Lodhi offered resistance , but he was ultimately defeated. Thus Punjab was conquered by Babur. Daulat Khan was pardoned and given some jagir for his maintenance.

• First Battle of Panipat( April 1526) –  Babur later marched towards Delhi in order to fight against Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi. At the historic field of Panipat, the Mughals and the Afghans came face to face. Ibrahim’s army consisted of about one lakh soldiers while Babur’s forces were nearly 25,000. Even though his army was outnumbered but his cavalry and artillery led by Ustad Ali and Mustafa gave victory to Babur. Thousands of Afghans including Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi were killed in the field. Thus the Afghans suffered a crushing defeat.

• Occupation of Delhi and Agra – After the victory of Panipat , Babur sent forces under Humayun to capture Agra and he himself preceded  towards Delhi to take its possession. Babur occupied Delhi very easily, then he went to Agra, which Humayun had already occupied it. Babur bestowed jagirs, grants and gifts upon all his soldiers, as well as his friends and relatives to win their faith and cooperation

• Conquests of neighbouring Afghan Territories – The victory at Panipat and the occupation of Delhi and Agra did not make Babur the master of the whole of India. There were a large number of Afghan chiefs in the territories of Sambhal, Biyana, Mewat, Dholpur, Gwalior, Rapri, Etawah, Kalpi, Kannauj and Bihar  who had asserted independence in their respective territories and had fortified their strongholds. Babur encouraged his soldiers with his speech and they in return expressed their determination. Babur directed his officials to march in various directions to conquer the territories of Sambhal, Rapri, Etawah, Kannauj and Dholpur were conquered.

• Battle of Kanwah (March 1527) – The most formidable rival of Babur was Rana Sangram Singh, the Rajput chieftain of Mewar who had organised a confederacy of the Rajput chiefs and was determined to revive Hindu Padshahi in India.  The Rajputs  and the Mughals came face to face at Kanwah -a village a few miles from Sikri. Rana Sangram Singh was the leader of the  Rajput and Afghan chiefs. Babur’s plan of the battle was almost the same as that of the battle of Panipat. Babur fought against the Rajputs and defeated them. This gave a blow to Rajput confederacy.

• Capture of Chanderi (January 1528) – There was no doubt the Rajputs had suffered a miserable defeat at Kanwah but still they were not completely crushed. Medni Rao of Chanderi was a powerful Rajput chief who by virtue of his strength played the the role of King maker in Malwa. In January 1528 Babur personally marched towards Chanderi with a large force. Medini Rao shut himself up in the fort with 5000 men. Babur with full determination attacked the fort of Chanderi. The Rajiputs offered tough resistance , the Rajput women even performed Jauhar. Still the fort was captured by Babur on January 29, 1528. Soon after this Rana Sangram Singh died and his death gave a fatal blow to Rajput power. Having captured Chanderi Babur proceeded to subdue the rebellious Afghan chiefs.

• Battle of Ghagra (May 1529) – Mahmud Lodhi the brother of late Ibrahim had become the master of Bihar and the adjoining territories towards the east. Babur sent his son Askari with a large force against him and soon afterwards followed himself. On his way Babur procured the submission of many Afghan chiefs. Disserted by many of his supporters and feeling himself too weak, Mahmud took shelter with Nusrat Shah of Bengal. Babur now marched towards Bengal and on 6^th of My 1529 he inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Afghans at the battle of Ghagra. After this Babur concluded a treaty with Nusrat Shah by which each party agreed to respect the sovereignty of the other. Nusrat Shah also promised not to give shelter to the enemies of Babur.

Thus Babur conquered quite a a large portion of Hindustan extending from the Indus to Bihar  and from Himalayas to Gwalior and Chanderi. He ruled over it, administered it and thereby laid the foundation of the Mughal empire. But unfortunately Babur could not get time to take the roots of the empire deep into the soil of our country for  the inevitable death took him away on 26^th December, 1530.

Conclusion

Despite his brief reign of four years, Babur left a lasting legacy in India. His profound love for nature sparked the creation of exquisite gardens, a tradition that became an integral element of Mughal architecture in the years to come. In 1529, Babur decisively defeated the combined forces of Afghans and Mahmud Lodi, effectively crippling resistance and securing the survival of the fledgling Mughal dynasty. His conquests significantly expanded the empire’s boundaries, encompassing a vast region stretching from Kabul in the west to Ghagra in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to Gwalior in the south.

Sher Shah Suri founded the Suri dynasty and he originated from Afghanistan who took control over the Mughal Empire in the year 1540 after defeating the second Mughal emperor Humayun. He had a significant contribution in the suri dynasty and he introduced a long-term bureaucracy in the calculated revenue system. He made a systematic relationship between the ruling king and the people. Sher Shah Suri captured Delhi to expand his sultanate and Gwalior and Malwa. He had a great contribution to the suri dynasty and after his death he was buried in Sasaram. His tomb was very significant in the sultanate’s history as well. 

Overview of Sher Shah Suri 

Sher shah suri was the founder of the Suri dynasty after defeating the Mughal emperor Humayunh in 1540. His capital was in Sasaram in the modern day of Bihar. He was the person who introduced the “rupee” in the calculated system of revenue. Sher Shah Suri was very brave and he ruled over Bihar. He changed some ruling posts and introduced many posts which have been divided into the Sarkars post. Sher Shah Suri was one of the greatest leader among the muslim rulers of india. He brought some private posts such as administrative army and taxation posts. He built roads, house rents and many wellbeing things for the people. He was known for introducing the postal for the people of the Indian continent. 

Salient Features of Sher Shah’s General Administration

Sher Shah, by the dint of his military skill, daring acts, great courage and resourcefulness not only established a mighty empire.

But also by his shrewd capacity for organizing, unique forethought and intimate knowledge of administration, made necessary arrangements for smooth and efficient administration and controlling the coveted empire.

Some of the salient features of his administration are given below:

A benevolent despot

Dr. Ishwar Prasad has rightly observed, “The Government of Sher Shah, though autocratic was enlightened and vigorous.” Sher Shah himself used to say, “It behoves the great to be always active.” And he himself adhered to this maxim. According to Crooke, “He was the first Musalman ruler who studied the good of the people.” Sher Shah believed, “Tyranny is unlawful in everyone, especially in a sovereign who is the guardian of his public.”

Advice of the council of Ministers

Sher Shah had a number of ministers to assist him in his administrative work. The ministers looked after their respective departments. Their appointment and dismissal was at his discretion.

Provincial administration

Historians have differed on the issue of Sher Shah’s provincial administration. While Qanungo has opined that there was no administrative unit called ‘Suba’ or ‘Iqta’, Dr. P. Saran states that there were ‘Subas’ where military officers were appointed by She Shah.

The entire kingdom was divided into provinces. Some provinces were very large and others small. There was no uniformity with regard to their income, size and administration. In the sensitive provinces like Lahore, Multan and Malwa, military governors looked after the administration. On the other hand, the province of Bengal was administered by a civilian.

(a) Sarkars:

A province was divided into a number of Sarkars (Districts). In all there were 47 districts. There were two chief officers in every district. The one chief Shiqdar or Shiqdar-i- Shiqdaran was a military officer. He maintained peace and order in the district, helped in the collection of revenue and other taxes and also supervised the work of his subordinate officers called Shiqdars.

The other officer was called the chief Munsif or Munsif- i-Muinsfan. He was primarily a judicial officer who looked after justice in the district. He also looked after the working of his subordinate judicial officers in the parganas. These two officers were helped by a number of junior officers and other subordinates in carrying out their duties.

(b) Parganas:

Each Sarkar was divided into small units called the parganas and each Pargana was further subdivided into a number of villages. Like the Sarkars, there were two chief officers called a Shiqdar (military officer) and Munsif (civilian judge) who were assisted by other staff in the discharge-of their duties.

(c) Villages:

A village was the smallest self-sufficient unit, administered by village panchayats. Sher Shah introduced the system of transferring officers of the Sarkars and the Paragans every two or three years so that they may not develop vested interest, the root cause of corruption.

Sources of income

Important sources of income were:

• Land revenue
• (Taxes on the transportation of raw and finished products
• (The royal mint
• Confiscation of the unclaimed property
• Tributes from the rajas, nawabs jagirdars, etc.
• Gifts from the foreign travellers
• Salt tax
• Jaziya on the Hindus
• One-fifth of the Kham (booty).

Land and revenue administration

The revenue administration of Sher Shah has been regarded as one of the best during the medieval period.

Important features of the revenue administration were as under:

1. Land for the purpose of revenue was divided into three categories on the basis of production—good, average and bad.
2. Generally land revenue was one-third of the produce, but could be paid both in cash and kind.
3. The land of each cultivator was measured according to a uniform standard and its quality was ascertained.
4. Lease deeds (pathas) were drawn between the farmers and the government. The area, the type of the soil, and the rates of land revenue were recorded on the lease deeds which were got signed by the farmers. The deeds confirmed the rights of the farmers on the lands.
5. Land revenue was remitted on poor crops.
6. Financial assistance (Taqavi loans) was granted to the farmers when needed by them.
7. The Sultan had ordered that while fixing the land revenue, the peasants should be treated with generosity but once settled they were asked to pay their revenue regularly.

In the words of Qanungo, “The land revenue administration of Sher Shah was a valuable heritage for the Mughals. He tried to levy the land revenue in accordance with the income of the peasants. The British adopted this system.”

Welfare of farmers

Sher Shah was very particular about the welfare of the peasants. He used to say, “If I oppress them they will abandon their villages and the country will be mined and deserted.”

Law and order

The most important contribution of Sher Shah was the reestablishment of law and order across the length and breadth of the empire. Dacoits and robbers were dealt with very sternly. It has been stated by several historians that during the reign of Sher Shah, an old woman might place a basket of golden ornaments on her head and go on a journey without any fear. No thief or robber would come near her for fear of punishment.

Local responsibility for theft

The local people or the head (Mukhiya) of the village was responsible for the safety of the people of the area and the travellers. It was the responsibility of the village Panchayat or the local people to produce the culprit or to pay for the stolen goods. In case the local officers of the village failed to trace the murderer, the headman was given the penalty of death. This method helped to wipe off thefts, robberies and murders.

Fair judicial administration

Sher Shah used to say and act upon it, “Justice is the most excellent of religious rites.” No one could escape punishment on account of high status.

The Sultan was the highest judicial authority in the state. Sher Shah held his court every Wednesday in the evening. Next to him was the chief Qazi who was the head of the department of justice.

There were subordinate Qazis in every district and in all important cities. The criminal law was severe. The offenders were punished by fines, flogging, imprisonment and even cutting of the limbs.

Efficient Espionage System

Sher Shah’s efficient administrative system largely depended upon his well-organised espionage system. The king kept himself posted with the minutest happening in his kingdom. The nobles were afraid of indulging in activities not conducive to the stability of the rule of the Sultan. Even the rates prevailing in the mandis were made available to the king. Spies were kept at all important places and at all importantt offices.

Well organised ‘dak’ system

The saraits were also used as Dak Chaukis. Two horses were kept at every sarai so that the news-carriers could get fresh horses at short intervals to maintain speed.

Currency

The ratio of exchange between the Dam and rupee was fixed at 64 to 1. The same coin-rupee ratio served the basis of the currency during the Mughal and British periods. Earlier there was no fixed ratio among so many coins of various metal alloys. He abolished the old and mixed metal currency. He issued fine coins of gold, silver and copper of uniform standard.

Network of roads

Sher Shah constructed a network of roads connecting important parts of his empire within his capital. He repaired old roads.

Sher Shah constructed the following four highways:

1. Sadak-e-Azam (Grand Trunk Road) starting from Sonargaon in Eastern Bengal passing through Agra, Delhi and Lahore and ter­minating at Peshawar, covering a distance of about 3,000 km;
2. From Agra to Jodhpur and the Chittor fort;
3. From Agra to Burhanpur;
4. From Lahore to Multan.

Prosperous Trade and Commerce

Law and order in the kingdom, protection of traders on roads, issue of new currency and the simplication of taxes helped in the promotion of trade and commerce. Trade tax was collected only at two places. One, where the goods entered the territory of his empire and the other where the goods were sold. All other internal trade taxes were abolished.

Sarais

About 1700 sarais were constructed on both sides of the roads. Each sarai had separate rooms for the Hindus and the Muslims. Each sarai had a well and a mosque. These sarais also served as dak Chaukis. In view of the special significance of these sarais, they were called as veritable arteries of the empire.”

Beautiful buildings

Sher Shah built the following buildings:

1. Mausoleum of Sher Shah at Sasaram in Bihar
2. Fort of Rohtasgarh on the banks of the river Jhelum in the north-west.
3. Purana Qila at New Delhi,
4. Mosque in the Purana Qila.

The Mausoleum of Sher Shah built in the midst of a lake on a lofty plinth, ranks among the most beautiful buildings in India.

Promotion of education

For the education of the Muslims, a Maktab was attached to every mosque for imparting elementary education and teaching Arabic and Persian. Madrasas were set up for higher education. Endowments and grants were given to educational institutions. Provision was also made for scholarships on the basis of merit.

The political condition of North India on the eve of Babur’s invasion in 1526 was marked by disunity, political fragmentation, and rivalry among various states and factions, including the Afghans and Rajputs. This disorganized political landscape played a pivotal role in Babur’s success in establishing the Mughal Empire. Babur’s victories were not only the result of his superior military skills and strategy but also the outcome of the internal weaknesses and rivalries within the Indian political structure.

Political Fragmentation and the Decline of the Delhi Sultanate

By the early 16th century, the Delhi Sultanate, once a dominant power in North India, had been reduced to a weakened and divided state under the rule of the Lodi dynasty. The Sultanate had lost its cohesion due to successive weak rulers and increasing autonomy of regional governors. The reigning Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi, faced rebellion from within his administration, as his attempts to consolidate power alienated many of his nobles and governors. The Afghan nobility, a key support base for the Lodis, became dissatisfied with Ibrahim’s authoritarian style of rule, leading prominent figures like Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, to invite Babur to intervene. This internal discord undermined the strength of the Lodis and left the Delhi Sultanate vulnerable to external attacks.

The Disunity Among the Rajputs

The Rajput states, despite their martial tradition and valor, failed to form a united front against external threats. The most prominent Rajput leader at the time, Rana Sanga of Mewar, sought to exploit the weakening Delhi Sultanate by allying with Babur against Ibrahim Lodi. However, the Rajputs themselves were divided by regional and dynastic rivalries. The lack of unity among Rajput clans prevented them from presenting a cohesive resistance against Babur’s forces. When Babur later turned his attention to the Rajputs, their internal divisions and reliance on traditional warfare left them ill-prepared to counter his modern military strategies.

Babur’s Superior Military and Leadership

One of the critical factors contributing to Babur’s success was his mastery of modern military techniques. Babur introduced the use of gunpowder, artillery, and firearms in India, technologies that were largely unknown or underutilized by the Afghans and Rajputs. The decisive victory at the First Battle of Panipat (1526), where Babur’s much smaller army defeated Ibrahim Lodi’s numerically superior forces, highlighted the effectiveness of his tactics. Babur employed Tulughma (flanking movements) and the Araba system (mobile cannon placements) to devastating effect, neutralizing Lodi’s elephants and disorganized infantry.

Furthermore, Babur’s army was highly disciplined and experienced, comprising veterans from Central Asia who were accustomed to his leadership style and battle strategies. In contrast, the Afghans and Rajputs relied on traditional forms of warfare, such as massive cavalry charges and elephant corps, which proved ineffective against Babur’s mobile and artillery-equipped forces.

Internal Rivalries Among the Afghans

The Afghans, a significant political force in North India, were deeply fragmented at the time of Babur’s invasion. The Afghan nobility, which had supported the Lodi dynasty, was divided into factions, with many regional governors seeking independence or aligning with external powers like Babur to advance their interests. Leaders such as Sher Shah Suri, who would later emerge as a formidable ruler, were not yet in a position to unify the Afghan factions. This disunity made it easier for Babur to isolate and defeat the Afghans in successive battles, consolidating his power in North India.

The Role of Opportunistic Alliances

One of the key reasons for Babur’s success was his ability to exploit the opportunistic alliances and rivalries among Indian rulers. Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga both invited Babur to invade India, viewing him as a temporary ally against their common enemy, Ibrahim Lodi. However, they underestimated Babur’s ambition to establish a permanent empire in India. Once Babur secured his position by defeating Ibrahim Lodi, he turned against Rana Sanga at the Battle of Khanwa (1527). Despite their bravery, the Rajputs were decisively defeated, as their traditional methods of warfare were no match for Babur’s disciplined troops and superior firepower.

Economic and Administrative Weaknesses

The economic condition of the Delhi Sultanate and the northern kingdoms further contributed to their inability to resist Babur effectively. Years of war, heavy taxation, and administrative inefficiencies had weakened the Sultanate’s ability to field and maintain a strong army. In contrast, Babur’s forces were well-funded and motivated, with a clear objective of establishing a new empire.

Babur’s Vision and Determination

Babur’s personal qualities as a leader were instrumental in his success. A seasoned warrior and strategist, he had spent years honing his skills in Central Asia and had learned to adapt to different political and military challenges. His memoirs, the Baburnama, reveal his deep understanding of Indian politics and his determination to carve out a legacy for himself in India. Unlike the fragmented Indian rulers, Babur had a clear vision and purpose, which galvanized his troops and enabled him to overcome seemingly insurmountable odds.

Conclusion

The political condition of North India on the eve of Babur’s invasion was characterized by disunity, fragmentation, and outdated military practices among the Afghans and Rajputs. These weaknesses, combined with Babur’s superior military tactics, leadership skills, and the use of modern weaponry, allowed him to achieve a series of decisive victories. The inability of Indian rulers to form a united front against a common enemy ultimately led to their downfall and the establishment of the Mughal Empire, which would dominate India for centuries to come.

The assertion that Sher Shah Suri was a precursor to the glorious regime of Akbar is widely acknowledged by historians due to Sher Shah’s visionary administration, efficient governance, and reformist policies, which laid the groundwork for the Mughal Empire’s later success. While Sher Shah’s reign was short-lived (1540–1545), his contributions to administration, revenue reforms, infrastructure development, and governance created a template that Akbar would refine and expand upon during his rule.

Administrative Reforms

Sher Shah’s administrative system was one of his most enduring legacies. He established a highly centralized administration, dividing his empire into sarkars (districts) and parganas (sub-districts) for effective governance. Each unit had officers like the shiqdar (military head) and the munsif (judicial and revenue officer), ensuring both law enforcement and revenue collection were handled systematically. This structure was remarkably efficient and provided a model for Akbar, who adopted and expanded this system into his mansabdari system.

Sher Shah also emphasized accountability and meritocracy in appointments, ensuring that officials were chosen based on ability rather than lineage or favoritism, a principle Akbar implemented with greater rigor in his empire.

Revenue Reforms

One of Sher Shah’s most significant contributions was his overhaul of the revenue system, which became the foundation for Akbar’s celebrated reforms under Raja Todar Mal. Sher Shah introduced a land revenue system based on actual measurement of land. He fixed the rate of taxation at one-third of the produce, payable in cash or kind, and maintained detailed records to ensure fairness.

This system not only boosted agricultural productivity but also improved the relationship between the state and the peasantry. Akbar refined this policy into the Zabt system, standardizing land revenue collection across his empire. Both rulers focused on ensuring that taxation did not burden farmers excessively, leading to agricultural prosperity and state stability.

Judicial and Law Enforcement Systems

Sher Shah was a staunch advocate of justice and established an impartial judicial system. He ensured that law enforcement was swift and efficient, punishing corruption and holding officials accountable. His commitment to justice and equality inspired Akbar, who institutionalized judicial reforms and incorporated elements of Sher Shah’s system into his administration. Akbar’s emphasis on Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace) and fair treatment of all communities echoed Sher Shah’s principles of governance.

Infrastructure Development

Sher Shah’s contributions to infrastructure were transformative and instrumental in unifying his empire. He constructed a network of roads, rest houses (sarais), and wells, ensuring connectivity and facilitating trade and travel. The most notable example is the Grand Trunk Road, which connected key regions of India and became a crucial artery for commerce and administration.

Akbar expanded on Sher Shah’s infrastructural initiatives, ensuring that his empire was equally well-connected and economically integrated. Sher Shah’s focus on facilitating trade and communication provided a blueprint that Akbar refined, enabling the Mughal Empire to thrive economically.

Military Organization

Sher Shah reformed his military by maintaining a standing army and introducing a dagh (branding) and chehra (descriptive roll) system to prevent corruption in the recruitment process. These reforms were critical in ensuring a disciplined and loyal military force. Akbar adopted and expanded these measures by institutionalizing the mansabdari system, which combined military and civil administration to create a more robust and versatile governance framework.

Religious Policy

Sher Shah’s religious policy, though not as liberal as Akbar’s, displayed tolerance and pragmatism. He ensured that non-Muslim communities were not subjected to unfair treatment, which contributed to social stability in his empire. While Akbar extended this approach through his policy of religious inclusivity and interfaith dialogue, Sher Shah’s relatively moderate stance laid the groundwork for later Mughal rulers to foster harmony among diverse communities.

Economic Vision

Sher Shah understood the importance of trade and commerce for state prosperity. By introducing uniform coinage, such as the rupiya, and regulating weights and measures, he created a stable economic environment. These measures enhanced internal trade and increased state revenues. Akbar adopted and expanded these initiatives, creating a robust monetary system that facilitated long-term economic growth in his empire.

Legacy and Influence on Akbar

Although Sher Shah’s reign lasted only five years, his policies profoundly influenced the Mughal administrative and governance structures. Akbar, inheriting the throne in a politically fragmented landscape, built upon Sher Shah’s legacy by institutionalizing reforms and expanding their scope to accommodate the vastness of his empire. Sher Shah’s model provided Akbar with a foundation of effective governance, which Akbar transformed into a golden age through innovation and adaptation.

Conclusion

Sher Shah Suri can rightly be considered a precursor to Akbar’s glorious regime. His administrative genius, revenue reforms, military organization, and infrastructural developments were not only pioneering but also instrumental in shaping the governance framework of the Mughal Empire. Akbar’s reign, often hailed as a pinnacle of Mughal glory, was built on the foundation laid by Sher Shah. While Akbar’s inclusive policies and visionary leadership elevated the empire to unprecedented heights, the influence of Sher Shah’s reforms in providing a template for effective governance cannot be overstated. Together, they represent a continuum of governance excellence that defined medieval Indian polity.

Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Humayun, also known as Humayun, was Babur’s eldest son. He was born on March 17, 1508, succeeded Babur (his father) in December 1530 at the age of 23. Because of Babur’s untimely death, he was unable to consolidate his empire; as a result, when Humayun became ruler, he faced numerous challenges. Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was one of the major opponent of Humayun.

Early Activities of Humayun

• At the age of 23, Humayun succeeded Babur in December 1530. He had to deal with a number of issues left by Babur.
• When Humayun ascended to the throne in Agra, the empire included Kabul and Qandahar, as well as Badakhshan beyond the Hindukush mountains.
• He had to deal with political insecurity because his vast empire was not consolidated.
• The treasury was empty because land revenue was not collected in a systematic manner.
• Kamran, Humayun’s younger brother, was in charge of Kabul and Qandahar and took Punjab forcibly.
• Humayun, who was preoccupied elsewhere and didn’t want to start a civil war, had no choice but to agree.
• Humayun’s suzerainty was accepted by Kamran.
• In 1532, he defeated the Afghan forces that had conquered Bihar and overrun Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh at Daurah.
• Humayun besieged Chunar after this victory.
• This fort commanded the land and river route between Agra and the east, and it was known as the gateway to eastern India.
• Bahadur Shah of Gujarat’s rapid rise to power, as well as his activities in the areas bordering Agra, had alarmed him.

Causes of Conflict

1. Bahadur Shah was very ambitious and he has set his eyes upon Delhi. Humayun was equally ambitious to expand his territories.
2. Bahadur Shah had given political asylum to Mahdi Khwaja, a brother- in-law of Humayun, who had claimed the throne of Delhi. He had also sheltered some of the Lodi princes who were enemies of Humayun and wanted to regain their lost territories from the Mughals.

Events

Bahadur Shah of Gujarat had started expanding his territory. He captured Malwa, Chanderi, and Ranthambore and laid siege to the fort of Chittor. The Rajput’s made an appeal to Humayun for help. Humayun proceeded to Chittor but subsequently he changed his mind and did not attack Bahadur Shah. In this context it is sometimes said that Humayun changed his mind as he felt it inappropriate to attack a Muslim ruler who was fighting against infidels. Whatever be the real reason, Humayun lost a golden opportunity.

According to another version karanwau, tne ‘Kajmata’ of Mewar had sent a rakhi’ to Humayun and sought his assistance as her brother. According to Dr. R.P. Tripathi, Humayun desired to consolidate his army, win over those people of Malwa who were against Bahadur Shah and arrange for the stoppage of help coming to Bahadur Shah either from Mandu or Ahmedabad – both places under the control of Bahadur Shah.

Humayun reached Mandasor, 60 miles from Chittor and checked the return route of Bahadur Shah from Chittor to Gujarat. Bahadur Shah also reached Mandasor but fled away and took shelter in the fort of Mandu: Humayun pursued him. From Mandu, Bahadur Shah ran from place to place: Champner, Cambay and finally to Goa. By that time, the entire Malwa and Gujarat had come under Humayun.

Humayun appointed his brother Askari as the governor of Gujarat. Askari proved incompetent. Bahadur Shah took the full advantage and captured Gujarat. Malwa was occupied by Mallu Khan in the name of Bahadur Shah.

Result of Gujarat expedition

About the loss of Gujarat and Malwa, Lane-poole has commented, “Malwa and Gujarat two provinces equal in area to the rest of Humayun’s kingdom had fallen like ripe fruits into his hands. Never was conquest so easy. Never too was conquest more recklessly squandered away.” Thus Humayun lost them as quickly as he had gained those two territories. The loss of these two territories lowered the prestige of Humayun.

Humayun’s Encounter with Sher Shah and his expulsion from India

Causes of the conflict

Babur had captured the throne of Delhi from the Afghans. They therefore, were quite hostile to Humayun. Sher Shah Suri was also an Afghan. While Humayun was busy in fighting against Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, Sher Shah consolidated his position in Bihar. He was in the possession of the strong fort of Chunar. Most of the Afghan nobles had gathered under his banner. He attacked Bangal twice and took huge tribute from the ruler. Humayun realized that it was necessary to subdue Sher Shah.

Events of struggle

Humayun and Sher Shah had three encounters with each offer i.e. at Chunar, Chausa and Kannauj.

Siege of Chunar. (1532)

The news of Sher Shah’s success in Bengal and Bihar alarmed Humayun. He hurried from Gujarat but instead of proceeding straight to Bengal where he might have secured the help of Bengal’s ruler, Humayun spent about six months in besieging the fort of Chunar is Bihar which was under Sher Shah. Sher Shah, realising his weak position, made a purely perfuntory submission and Humayun raised the sieze.

Battle of Chausa (1539)

There were apparently no major conflicts between Sher Shah and Humayun for about six years. During this period Sher Shah greatly strengthened his position. He reorganised his army. On the request of the ruler of Bengal, Humayun went to Bengal and spent about eight months is 1538 and 1539. During these eight months Sher Shah captured a number of places like Banaras, Sambhal etc.

In the mean­while Humayun’s brother Hindal declared himself as the emperor of Delhi. Humayun decided to return to Agra from Bengal. However, Sher Shah blocked his way at Chausa, the boundary between Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The two armies remained there facing each other for three months. In the meanwhile rainy season started.

This created problems and confusion for the Mughal army which was camping in the lowland. The Mughal camp was flooded. At this juncture Sher Shah hit upon a plan. He gave out that he was preceding against a tribal leader who had been defying him.

After marching a few miles in that direction, he returned suddenly in the night and fell upon Humayun’s army from three sides in the early down of June 26, 1539. Humayun lost the battle and was wounded. To save his life, he plunged his horse into a stream and was saved from drowning by a water carrier whom as the story goes, Humayun allowed to sit on the throne for two days and who struck coins of leather.

Results

It was a great victory for Sher Shah and consequently he declared himself the Sultan.

Sher Shah, thereafter captured Bengal.

Again it was a great setback to Humayun.

The Battle of Kannauj (1540)

After his defeat at Chausa, Humayun reached Agra and sought help from his brothers. However, all the brothers could not unite. Humayun recruited a big army which comprised mostly new recruits and proceeded towards. Kannauj when Sher Shah had already encamped himself. Sher Shah’s victory was decisive. Humayun fled and reached Agra.

Results of the conflicts

1. After his defeat at Kannauj, Humayun had to spend about fifteen years in exile from 1540 to 1554.
2. Sher Shah became the ruler of Delhi.

Causes of the defeat of Humayun and Sher Shah’s success

1. Inability of Humayun to understand the nature of Afghan power.
2. Lack of organisational ability in Humayun.
3. Unhelpful attitude of Humayun’s brothers.
4. Humayun’s incapability for sustained efforts.
5. Sher Shah’s diplomatic submission and lifting of Chunar’s sieze by Humayun.
6. Sher Shah’s qualities of a military leader.
7. Humayun’s revelry and wasting valuable time.
8. Humayun’s war camp at low land.
9. Struggle at several fronts by Humayun. Sher Shah’s sudden attack at Humayun’s army in Kannauj.
10. No unity of command in Humayun’s army.

On the eve of Babur’s invasion in 1526, the social and economic conditions of India were complex, reflecting a mixture of prosperity, cultural diversity, and deep inequalities. India was a land of immense wealth and resources, but its fragmented political structure, exploitative social hierarchies, and regional disparities influenced the lives of its people. Understanding the social and economic backdrop of this period is crucial to comprehending the historical context of Babur’s success and the subsequent establishment of the Mughal Empire.

Social Condition

The social structure of India during this period was deeply stratified and shaped by a rigid caste system among Hindus and the social hierarchies within Muslim communities. These divisions played a significant role in shaping the socio-political landscape.

Caste System and Social Stratification

The caste system was the cornerstone of Hindu society, dividing people into four main varnas: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (laborers). Beneath these were the Dalits (untouchables), who faced extreme social exclusion and were relegated to menial and degrading tasks. This rigid stratification led to widespread social inequalities, with limited upward mobility for the lower castes.

The caste-based system restricted social interactions, occupational choices, and even access to resources like education and temple worship. These divisions weakened societal cohesion and contributed to the lack of unity among the people, making it easier for invaders like Babur to conquer the region.

Diverse Religious Practices

India was a land of diverse religions, with Hinduism being the majority faith. Islam, introduced through earlier invasions and trade, was prominent in the northern regions, particularly under the Delhi Sultanate. Other religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism were present but less influential by this time. Religious coexistence existed to some degree, but tensions between Hindus and Muslims occasionally surfaced, particularly in areas where rulers imposed discriminatory taxes like the jizya (tax on non-Muslims).

Cultural Flourishing

Despite the social challenges, the arts, literature, and architecture thrived. Regional kingdoms like Vijayanagara in the south and the Delhi Sultanate in the north supported poets, scholars, and artists. Persian influence was prominent in Muslim-ruled areas, leading to a fusion of Indian and Persian cultural traditions in language, music, and art. However, this cultural richness was limited to the elite, with the lower classes largely excluded from participation in intellectual and artistic pursuits.

Women in Society

The condition of women during this period varied greatly depending on religion, region, and caste. Among Hindus, practices such as child marriage, purdah (seclusion of women), and sati (widow self-immolation) were prevalent in some regions, particularly in the north. Women from lower castes, however, often worked alongside men in agriculture and artisanal crafts. Among Muslims, purdah and the seclusion of women in harems were common among the elite. Women had limited access to education and property rights, though exceptions existed among the nobility.

Economic Condition

India’s economy on the eve of Babur’s invasion was characterized by its agrarian base, thriving trade networks, and significant regional disparities. While the economy generated immense wealth, much of it was concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite, and the peasantry often lived in poverty.

Agriculture: The Backbone of the Economy

Agriculture was the primary occupation for the majority of the population. The fertile Indo-Gangetic plain produced a surplus of crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, and cotton, which supported the urban centers and trade. However, the agricultural system was marked by exploitative land revenue practices, particularly under the Delhi Sultanate. Farmers were heavily taxed, often leaving them with barely enough to sustain themselves. Natural disasters, such as famines or floods, could devastate entire regions, highlighting the vulnerability of the agrarian economy.

The absence of significant technological advancements in farming methods limited productivity, and the dependence on monsoons made agriculture unpredictable. These issues, combined with the lack of state support, created a precarious existence for the rural population.

Trade and Commerce

India was a hub of international and domestic trade during this period. Indian textiles, spices, precious stones, and other goods were highly sought after in markets from the Middle East to Southeast Asia. Coastal regions, particularly in Gujarat, Bengal, and Malabar, were centers of maritime trade. Indian ports facilitated commerce with Arab, Persian, and Southeast Asian traders, contributing to the prosperity of these regions.

However, trade networks were heavily influenced by political stability. The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate and the rise of regional kingdoms disrupted trade routes in northern India, creating economic uncertainty. Internal trade relied on extensive road networks, but these were often unsafe due to banditry and lack of proper maintenance.

Urban Centers and Craftsmanship

Urban centers like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, and Kannauj were flourishing hubs of trade and manufacturing. Skilled artisans produced high-quality goods, including textiles, metalwork, and jewelry, which were exported across the world. These cities were also administrative centers that reflected the wealth and power of the ruling elite.

Craftsmen and traders were organized into guilds, which regulated trade practices and maintained quality standards. However, the benefits of economic prosperity were concentrated in urban areas, leaving rural regions largely impoverished.

Currency and Taxation

The economic system was monetized to a significant extent, with silver and copper coins used in trade and taxation. The currency system was relatively stable, but heavy taxation by regional rulers placed a significant burden on peasants and traders. Taxes were often collected in kind, leading to inefficiencies and corruption. This exploitative system created widespread discontent among the lower classes, further contributing to the vulnerability of the region to external invasions.

Conclusion

The social and economic conditions of India on the eve of Babur’s invasion were marked by deep inequalities, political fragmentation, and regional disparities. While India was rich in resources and had thriving trade networks, the benefits of this wealth were unequally distributed. The rigid social hierarchy, combined with the exploitation of peasants through heavy taxation, created a discontented and disunited population. Economically, the region was vulnerable due to its dependence on agriculture, lack of technological progress, and disrupted trade routes.

These factors, coupled with the political instability of the Delhi Sultanate and regional kingdoms, created an environment ripe for conquest. Babur’s invasion capitalized on these weaknesses, paving the way for the establishment of the Mughal Empire and significant changes in India’s socio-economic and political structure.

Humayun’s early life

As the story goes, Humayun fell ill and his father Babur prayed for his recovery and transfer his illness to him. His prayer was granted. Humayun recovered, Babur fell ill and died soon.

After the death of his father, Humayun ascended the throne of Delhi. Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Humayun who is popularly known as Humayun was the eldest son of Babur. Kamran, Askari and Hindal were his step brothers. He learnt Turki, Arabic and Persian. He worked as governor of a province in Kabul.

He took part in the battles of Panipat and Khanwa. He looked after the administration of Hissar, Firuza and Sambhal. He was nominated by Babur as his successor. Humayun is probably the only king in the history of India whose rule included two spells, one from 1530-40 and the other in 1555-56 after his fifteen years’ exile from India. Humayun, literally meaning ‘fortunate’ but through most part of his life, he remained ‘unfortunate’. He is again the only king who on the advice of his father treated his half-brothers in real brotherly affection but without any reciprocal response from them rather betrayal from one.

Early difficulties faced by Humayun and Babur’s Legacy

The throne inherited by Humayun was full of thorns. He had to face several difficulties right from his accession. Among the major factors which contributed to his difficulties and problems were the legacy of Babur’s will, the unfriendly treatment of his brothers and relatives and lastly, the hostile attitude of the Afghans and the Rajput’s.

Babur had entered the country as a stranger and spoiler. He had defeated the armies and broken the power of the reigning dynasty i.e. the Lodis. The only hold which he and the Mughals had upon the people of India was military force. Babur had not created a strong administrative machinery to control such a vast empire.

1. Division of empire according to Babur’s will

Humayun very faithfully implemented the will of his father. He treated all his young step brothers very kindly. He made Kamran the ruler of Kabul and Kandhar, Askari, the ruler of Rohilkhand and Hindal, the ruler of Mewat (comprising the modern territories of Alwar, Mathura and Gurgaon). Thus his sphere of influence and power was reduced. This division weakened the unity of the empire.

2. Ungratefulness and incompetency of Humayun’s brothers

Kamran, after taking Kabul and Kandhar, took Punjab forcibly. Hindal too declared himself emperor. Askari lost some part of the area allotted to him. All these actions had an adverse effect on Humayun.

3. Hostile attitude of Humayun’s own relatives

Mutual conspiracies and jealousies of Humayun’s relatives created several problems for him. Muhammad Jama Mirza, a powerful noble and the husband of Humayun’s sister, Muhammad Mehdi Khwaja, Babur’s brother-in law, and Muhammad Sultan Mirza, Humayun’s cousin were quite powerful and ambitious. They created several problems for him.

4. Lack of suitable administrative machinery

Babur spent almost his time in wars and could not take suitable steps to organize the administration of the territories he conquered.

5. Want of a well-integrated and unified army

The Mughal army was a heterogeneous body of several races—Chaghatais, Uzbeks, Mughals, Persian, Afghans and Hindustanis, etc. Such an army could be kept under control and disciplined only under the leadership of a capable, dashing and inspiring commander like Babur. Humayun was too weak for this purpose.

6. Babur’s Distribution of Jagirs

Babur’s nobles and soldiers had rendered great assistance to him in his conquests. Therefore, in order to please them Babur gave them Jagirs liberally, In due course these nobles became very powerful and they posed a great threat to the stability of the Mughal empire.

7. Paucity of funds

After getting enormous wealth from the royal treasuries of Delhi and Ajmer, Babur distributed it so lavishly among his soldiers and nobles that very little were left for Humayun to conduct the affairs of his administration.

8. Hostility of the Afghans

The Afghans who were ruling Delhi a few years back still had ambition to capture power again. Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, was also an Afghan. He was also ambitious of the throne of Delhi. But the most important and powerful Afghan, who later drove away Humayun, was Sher Shah.

9. Belied Rajput’s hopes

Though the power of the Rajput’s had been weakened by Babur, yet they cherished some hopes of recovering their lost power and territories.

Humayun’s own responsibility for most of his Difficulties

As a ruler he lacked foresight and was incapable of taking a long term view of political and military problems. He was not a good judge of men and circumstances. He lacked sustained effort and after a victory he would fritter away his energy in revelry.

No doubt, he inherited a rich-legacy of difficulties but he made it richer by his own blunders. His lethargy was chronic. Though beset with dangers and better enemies all around, he did not develop the ‘Killer’s instinct’. He was daring as a soldier but not cautious as a general. He failed to pounce upon opportunities as well as upon his enemies in time. In the words of Lane-poole, “Humayun’s greatest enemy was he himself.”

1. Weak personality

Humayun lacked resolution and sustained energy, foresight and quick grasp of situation. “He revelled at the table when he ought to have been in the saddle”. He was slow to understand men, slow to grasp golden opportunities, slow to decide, slow to win a battle. As observed by Lane-poole, “He lacked character and resolution. He was incapable of sustained efforts after a moment of triumph and would busy himself in his ‘harem’ and dream away the precious hour in the opium eaters’ paradise while his enemies were thundering at his gate.

2. Underestimating Sher Shah’s strength

He failed to estimate the growing power of Sher Shah Suri. He should not have accepted the half­hearted submission of Sher Shah at chunar. In fact he should have nipped him in the bud.

3. Negative response to Rajput’s’ request

He should have given a positive response to the request of the Rajput’s and attacked Bahadur Shah of Gujarat at Chittor and should have completely crushed his power.

4. Lack of military strategies

Humayun did not attack his strong opponents at the appropriate time. Instead of rushing to Chittor to attack Bahadur Shah, he wasted time in festivities at Mandu. Likewise, instead of punishing the rebels in Bihar, he spent several months on his way in besieging minor places. All this gave time to his adversaries to make adequate preparations and to consolidate their positions.

5. Defensive attitude

After his defeat at Chausa, he always remained on the defensive. He did not attempt to recapture the territory.

6. Wrong choice of site

In the battle of Kanauj, he made blunders in choosing a low land for encampment and for remaining inactive before the enemy for two months.

7. Leniency to his enemies

He pardoned again and again those who revolted against him. This he did not only in the case of Kamran but also in the case of Mohammad Zaman Mirza.

8. Sher Shah – more capable

It must be admitted that he was no match for Sher Khan who was in every respect superior to him in preparing and planning battles and in fighting the enemy. Sher Shah had more experience, more knowledge of strategies, more organizing capacity. He never missed an opportunity and could use wily tricks and crafty means to conquer the enemy while Humayun could not do anything, which did not beloved a king as well as gentleman, and refined person.

Success at the end

It is not doing justice to Humayun when it is said that he was a failure. True he failed against Sher Shah but after his death, he seized every opportunity to come to power. But his spirit was not subdued. Even after 15 years of exile he could recapture his throne of Delhi and restore the power and prestige of the Mughals. “He went from riches to rags and again from rags to riches.”

In his personal life, Humayun was an obedient son, lovable husband, affectionate father and a good relative. He was generous and attached in temperament, cultured and fond of learning. He was the lover of humanity and the model of a gentleman.

Humayun possessed a dominant will. Dr. S. Roy has rightly commented, “With all his weaknesses and failings, Humayun has a significant place in Indian history which is not, perhaps, always duly appreciated. The well- timed restoration of the Mughal power was a real achievement which paved the way, for the splendid imperialism of Akbar.”

After ruling for ten years, he was forced to spend 15 years out of India. When he was able to recover Delhi, he could hardly enjoy the fruits of his victory, as within six months, he fell down from the stairs of his library in Delhi fort and died.

Nasir al-Din Muhammad also known as Humayun, was the second emperor of the Mughal Empire, ruling over territory that is now Eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northern India, and Bangladesh from 1530 to 1540 and again from 1555 to 1556. Humayun succeeded his father to the throne of Delhi and the Mughal lands in the Indian subcontinent in December 1530. When Humayun came to power at the age of 22, he was an inexperienced monarch. Humayun’s worst enemies were the Afghans. They were the masters of Delhi only a few years ago, and they have not given up their desire to reclaim it.

Humayun and Afghans – Causes of Conflict

• Babur had taken Delhi’s throne from the Afghans. As a result, they were hostile to Humayun.
• Sher Shah Suri was an Afghan as well.
• Sher Shah cemented his authority in Bihar while Humayun was busy battling Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• Sher Shah was the proud owner of Chunar’s stronghold and had united the majority of the Afghan nobles under his banner.
• He assaulted Bengal twice and demanded a large sum of money from the ruler.
• Humayun knew that subduing Sher Shah was required.

Humayun – Afghan Struggle

Humayun and Sher Shah met with each other three times, in Chunar, Chausa, and Kannauj.

Siege of Chunar (1532)

• Humayun was frightened by Sher Shah’s success in Bengal and Bihar.
• Instead of heading straight to Bengal, where he could have enlisted the support of Bengal’s monarch, Humayun spent six months besieging the fort of Chunar in Bihar, which was under Sher Shah’s control.
• Sher Shah made a fully voluntary submission after seeing his weakness, and Humayun captured the fort of Chunar.

Battle of Chausa (1539)

• For approximately six years, there appeared to be no major confrontations between Sher Shah and Humayun. Sher Shah’s position grew significantly during this time.
• Humayun travelled to Bengal on the behest of the ruler of Bengal and spent around eight months there in 1538.
• Sher Shah conquered a number of cities over these eight months, including Banaras, Sambhal, and others. Meanwhile, Hindal, Humayun’s brother, declared himself Emperor of Delhi.
• Humayun chose to return from Bengal to Agra. Sher Shah, however, blocked his way at Chausa, the Bihar-Uttar Pradesh border.
• For three months, the two armies stood facing each other. This created tension between both armies. Mughals were tricked.
• Sher Shah devised a strategy at this point. He stated that he was going up against a tribal chief who had been disobeying him.
• In the early hours of June 26, 1539, after marching a few miles in that direction, he returned unexpectedly in the night and attacked Humayun’s army from three sides. Humayun was wounded and lost the battle.
• To save his life, he threw his horse into a river and was saved from drowning by a water carrier. As a result, Sher Shah Suri declared himself a Sultan and captured West Bengal.

Battle of Kannauj (1540)

• Humayun arrived in Agra after his defeat at Chausa and sought support from his brothers. All of the brothers, however, were unable to unite.
• Humayun gathered a large army, primarily made up of young recruits, and marched towards Kannauj.
• Sher Shah has already set up camp in Kannauj and won this battle. The success of Sher Shah was crucial.
• Humayun escaped and pushed his way to Agra.
• As a result, Humayun had to spend roughly fifteen years in exile after his defeat at Kannauj, from 1540 to 1554.

Causes of Defeat of Humayun and Sher Shah’s Success

• Humayun’s inability to realize the essence of Afghan authority and lack of organizational skills.
• His brothers were unhelpful and Humayun was unable to maintain consistent effort.
• Sher Shah’s diplomatic capitulation and Humayun’s release of Chunar.
• Humayun wasted most of the time in celebration and procrastination.
• Sher Shah launched an unexpected attack against Humayun’s troops in Kannauj.
• Humayun’s army lacked command cohesion.

Conclusion

Humayun and Afghans under the command of Sher Shah Suri fought the Second Afghan-Mughal war (1532-1540). Sher Shah Suri was a prominent Afghan nobleman who desired to take control of Delhi and Agra. He consolidated his stronghold in Bihar and Bengal while Humayun was engaged in conquering Gujarat. He also cut off Humayun’s connection to Agra. Sher Shah defeated the Mughal army in the Battle of Kanauj later that year. In 1540, the Afghans won and all Mughals were banished from India. Sher Shah Suri claimed to be the king of Delhi and Agra.

The statement that “Babur was at the least a warrior and no statesman” oversimplifies the multifaceted personality and accomplishments of Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India. While it is true that Babur’s military prowess and leadership as a warrior were central to his historical legacy, it would be inaccurate to dismiss his statesmanship entirely. Babur demonstrated significant political acumen in consolidating his conquests, organizing his administration, and laying the foundations for an empire that lasted over three centuries. A closer examination of his life and achievements reveals a balanced understanding of his dual role as a warrior and a statesman.

Babur as a Warrior

Babur’s reputation as a formidable warrior was built on his ability to conquer and defeat powerful adversaries despite facing tremendous odds. From an early age, Babur displayed exceptional military skills. He was only 12 years old when he ascended the throne of Fergana in 1494, a small principality in Central Asia. Surrounded by rivals and powerful enemies like the Uzbeks, Babur learned the art of warfare through both triumphs and setbacks.

Babur’s most remarkable achievements as a warrior were his campaigns in India, where he defeated formidable forces such as the Lodi Sultanate and the Rajputs. The Battle of Panipat (1526), where Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi despite being heavily outnumbered, showcased his military genius. His use of field artillery, flanking tactics, and cavalry maneuvers marked a turning point in Indian warfare. Babur further solidified his position with victories at the Battle of Khanwa (1527) against Rana Sanga of Mewar and the Battle of Chanderi (1528) against Medini Rai.

These victories were not just a demonstration of brute force but also of strategic planning. Babur’s ability to motivate his soldiers, exploit weaknesses in his enemies’ armies, and adapt to unfamiliar Indian terrain underscores his brilliance as a warrior. However, critics argue that his focus on military conquest overshadowed his role as a statesman during his relatively short reign in India.

Babur’s Statesmanship

While Babur’s statesmanship is often overlooked, he exhibited several qualities of a capable ruler who sought to consolidate and govern his empire effectively. His autobiography, the Baburnama, provides valuable insights into his thoughts on governance, administration, and diplomacy, reflecting his statesmanlike qualities.

Consolidation of Power

Babur’s conquests in India were not merely acts of plunder but deliberate steps toward establishing a stable empire. After his victory at Panipat, Babur worked to integrate the diverse regions under his control. He respected the local traditions and involved Indian nobles in his administration to ensure political stability. For instance, he retained certain Afghan officers who had served under Ibrahim Lodi, recognizing the importance of local cooperation.

Administrative Acumen

Although Babur’s reign in India was short (1526–1530), he took initial steps to organize his empire. He introduced measures to streamline revenue collection and prevent corruption among his officers. Babur also emphasized the importance of justice and discipline among his administrators, setting the stage for the more elaborate administrative reforms of his successors like Akbar.

Diplomatic Vision

Babur demonstrated his diplomatic skills in forging alliances and neutralizing potential threats. Before the Battle of Khanwa, he sought to divide the Rajput confederacy by winning over certain Rajput rulers. His ability to navigate complex political landscapes in both Central Asia and India indicates that he understood the importance of diplomacy in sustaining his rule.

Cultural Legacy

Babur’s statesmanship extended beyond politics to the cultural sphere. As a patron of art and literature, he brought the Timurid Renaissance to India, introducing Persianate culture, architecture, and aesthetics that later flourished under Mughal rule. His love for gardening, reflected in the creation of charbagh-style gardens, symbolizes his vision of a refined and harmonious empire. This cultural legacy was a vital aspect of his statesmanship, as it helped create a sense of unity and identity within his empire.

Limitations of Babur’s Statesmanship

Despite these qualities, Babur’s statesmanship had its limitations, primarily due to the brevity of his reign and the challenges he faced in consolidating his empire. Babur spent much of his life as a conqueror, moving from one battlefield to another, which left him little time to focus on governance. His untimely death in 1530 meant that many of his administrative reforms remained incomplete.

Moreover, Babur faced significant resistance from local rulers, particularly in regions like Bihar and Bengal, which he struggled to fully subjugate. His reliance on his Central Asian officers and the absence of a well-defined administrative framework often created discontent among his Indian subjects. These challenges highlight the incomplete nature of his statesmanship but do not negate his efforts to establish a stable empire.

Comparative Perspective

When compared to later Mughal rulers like Akbar, Babur’s achievements as a statesman may seem less impressive. Akbar’s policies of religious tolerance, administrative centralization, and revenue reform far surpassed Babur’s contributions. However, it is essential to recognize that Babur laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire, providing a blueprint for his successors to build upon. Without Babur’s initial conquests and vision, the Mughal Empire might never have come into existence.

Conclusion

The characterization of Babur as merely a warrior and not a statesman is a narrow interpretation of his legacy. While his military achievements undoubtedly defined his career, his contributions to administration, diplomacy, and cultural integration demonstrate his statesmanship. Babur was a visionary who understood the complexities of ruling a diverse and fragmented region like India. His reign, though brief, laid the groundwork for the Mughal Empire’s future stability and grandeur. Thus, Babur was not just a warrior but also a statesman who sowed the seeds of a lasting dynasty.

The First Battle of Panipat took place on April 21, 1526, between the invading forces of Babur and the Lodi dynasty. It occurred in North India and marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire as well as the end of the Delhi Sultanate. This was the first battle in the Indian subcontinent to use gunpowder firearms and field artillery, both of which were introduced by the Mughals.

Background

• The first battle of Panipat took place on April 21, 1526, in Panipat, a level plain suitable for cavalry movements about 50 miles (80 kilometres) north of Delhi.
• It was fought between the Mughal chief Babur (ruler of Kabul) and Sultan Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi.
• During that time, North India was ruled by Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty, but the empire was crumbling and there were many defectors.
• Babur was invited by Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of Punjab, and Ala-ud-Din, Ibrahim’s uncle.
• On receiving the invitation, Babur dispatched an ambassador to Ibrahim, claiming himself to be the rightful heir to the country’s throne, but the ambassador was detained in Lahore and released months later.
• In 1524, Babur arrived in Lahore but was turned back by Lodi’s troops. He attempted to defeat Lodi once more with the assistance of another rebel chief but in vain.
• However, Babur was better prepared in 1526, thanks to an improved intelligence network.
• This resulted in the first Battle of Panipat that took place in 1526, in Panipat, a level plain suitable for cavalry movements about 50 miles (80 kilometres) north of Delhi.

Army of Both Sides

• Babur’s Mughal forces numbered between 13,000 and 15,000 men, the majority of whom were horse cavalry.
• His main weapon was 20 to 24 pieces of field artillery, a relatively new innovation in warfare.
• Ibrahim Lodi’s 30,000 to 40,000 soldiers, as well as tens of thousands of camp followers, were arrayed against the Mughals.
• According to various sources, Lodi’s primary weapon of shock and awe was his troop of war elephants, which numbered anywhere from 100 to 1,000, trained and battle-hardened pachyderms.

Battle of Panipat

• Ibrahim Lodi was no tactician, his army marched out without any formation, relying on sheer numbers and the power of elephants to overwhelm the enemy.
• Babur, on the other hand, used two tactics that were unfamiliar to Lodi which turned the tide of the battle.
• The first was Tulughma, which divided a smaller force into divisions such as forward left, rear left, forward right, rear right, and centre.
• The highly mobile right and left divisions peeled out and surrounded the larger enemy force, driving it into the centre.
• Babur positioned his cannons in the centre.
• Babur’s second tactical innovation was the use of carts, known as Araba.
• His artillery forces were protected by a row of carts tied together with leather ropes to keep the enemy from getting between them and attacking the artillerymen.
• Previously this tactic was used by the Ottoman Turks during the Battle of Chaldiran, that’s why Babur referred to this method as the “Ottoman device.”
• Babur trapped the Lodi army in a pincher motion with his Tulughma formation.
• The Lodi’s war elephants had never heard such a loud and terrible noise before that produced by the canons, the frightened animals turned around and ran through their own lines, causing them to trample their own men.
• Finally, the tyrannical sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, was abandoned by his surviving officers and left to die on the battlefield from his wounds.

Result of the Battle of Panipat

• This first Battle of Panipat effectively ended the Lodi dynasty in India.
• Babur, the Timurid ruler of Kabulistan, defeated the much larger force of Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi.
• Ibrahim Lodi died on the battlefield after being abandoned by his feudatories and generals (many of whom were mercenaries).
• The majority of them shifted their allegiance to Delhi’s new ruler.
• Sultan Ibrahim’s fate could have been reversed if he had survived another hour of fighting, as Babur had no reserves left and his troops were rapidly tiring.
• Babur’s victory allowed him to lay the groundwork for the Indian Mughal Empire.

Conclusion

Babur, the Timurid ruler of Kabulistan, defeated the much larger ruling army of Sultan of Delhi Ibrahim Lodi in 1526 and effectively ended the Lodi dynasty in India. Although it would take time for Babur and his successors to consolidate control of the country, the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate was a significant step toward the establishment of the Mughal Empire, which would rule India until it was defeated by the British Raj in 1858.

The assertion that “Humayun was his own enemy” reflects the perception that Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, often made decisions that jeopardized his reign and contributed to his initial failures. While it is undeniable that Humayun faced extraordinary challenges, such as powerful adversaries, limited resources, and political instability, his personality traits, lack of strategic foresight, and certain policy decisions exacerbated these difficulties. However, it would be overly simplistic to attribute his failures solely to his shortcomings. 

Humayun’s Personality and Governance Style

Humayun, though well-meaning and cultured, lacked the decisive leadership and military acumen of his father, Babur, or his son, Akbar. His reign (1530–1540 and 1555–1556) was marked by repeated struggles to assert control over the Mughal Empire, which he inherited under challenging circumstances. Unlike Babur, who exhibited sharp strategic skills, Humayun often displayed indecisiveness, a lack of pragmatism, and overconfidence.

Indecisiveness and Inconsistent Leadership

One of Humayun’s most glaring weaknesses was his inability to make firm and timely decisions. After his ascension to the throne in 1530, he faced multiple threats, including the ambitions of Afghan warlords like Sher Shah Suri, the hostility of the Rajputs, and the rebellions of his brothers. Despite these challenges, Humayun often delayed decisive action, giving his enemies the opportunity to strengthen their positions.

For instance, during the crucial campaign against Sher Shah Suri, Humayun wasted valuable time besieging Chunar Fort, allowing Sher Shah to consolidate his power in Bihar and Bengal. This indecision ultimately led to Humayun’s defeat at the Battle of Chausa (1539) and the Battle of Kanauj (1540), forcing him into exile.

Overconfidence and Lack of Foresight

Humayun’s tendency to underestimate his rivals further weakened his position. His initial victories, such as the capture of Gaur (Bengal), gave him a false sense of security. He failed to recognize the tactical brilliance of Sher Shah, who used guerilla warfare and superior logistical planning to outmaneuver the Mughals. This overconfidence, combined with his inability to anticipate long-term consequences, made Humayun vulnerable to powerful adversaries.

Personal Traits

While Humayun was known for his generosity and chivalry, these qualities often worked against him in the ruthless world of medieval politics. His decision to pardon his brother Kamran Mirza multiple times, despite Kamran’s repeated betrayals, highlights his inability to take decisive action against disloyalty. This leniency undermined his authority and emboldened his rivals.

Challenges from Rivals and Brothers

While Humayun’s personal failings contributed to his struggles, external factors also played a significant role. The empire he inherited from Babur was far from stable. Babur’s conquests had not been fully consolidated, and the empire lacked the strong administrative foundation that Akbar later established.

Rebellions by Brothers

Humayun’s greatest challenge came from within his own family. His brothers, particularly Kamran Mirza, Askari Mirza, and Hindal Mirza, repeatedly rebelled against him, often allying with his enemies. Kamran, who controlled Punjab and Kabul, actively conspired to overthrow Humayun. The lack of unity among the Mughal princes weakened the empire and diverted Humayun’s attention from external threats.

The Rise of Sher Shah Suri

The emergence of Sher Shah Suri as a formidable adversary was another significant factor in Humayun’s downfall. Sher Shah’s administrative brilliance, military tactics, and ability to win the loyalty of his followers made him a formidable opponent. While Sher Shah’s rise was partly due to his own capabilities, Humayun’s failure to decisively confront him allowed Sher Shah to establish the Suri Empire.

Humayun’s Exile and Resilience

After his defeat at Kanauj, Humayun spent nearly 15 years in exile, wandering through Persia and Afghanistan. During this period, he faced numerous hardships but also demonstrated remarkable resilience and determination. With the help of Shah Tahmasp of Persia, Humayun managed to regroup and recapture Kabul and Kandahar. His eventual reconquest of Delhi in 1555 highlights his perseverance, though his untimely death in 1556 left the task of consolidating the empire to his son Akbar.

Humayun’s Achievements and Legacy

Despite his struggles, Humayun’s reign was not without achievements. His cultural patronage enriched the Mughal court, blending Persian and Indian traditions. His alliances with Persia introduced Persianate art, architecture, and administrative practices that profoundly influenced the Mughal Empire. Moreover, Humayun’s eventual restoration of the Mughal throne paved the way for Akbar’s golden age.

Conclusion

The statement that “Humayun was his own enemy” is partially true, as his personality traits, indecision, and lack of strategic foresight often undermined his efforts. However, this view must be tempered by an understanding of the external challenges he faced, including a fragmented empire, rebellious brothers, and powerful rivals like Sher Shah Suri. While Humayun’s initial reign was marked by failures, his resilience during exile and eventual triumph demonstrate that he was not solely responsible for his struggles. His legacy, though overshadowed by his son Akbar’s achievements, laid the cultural and political groundwork for the consolidation of the Mughal Empire.