Introduction

Nationalism is a sentiment of belonging to a community whose members with a set of and ways of and have the will to decide upon their common political destiny. Nationalism has been called the religion of and centuries. As a way of thinking about the world, it emphasises the importance of nations explaining historical developments and analysing contemporary politics and also claims that ‘national character’ is a pervasive factor differentiating human beings. Nationalism is a sentiment that has to do with attachment to a homeland, a common language, ideals, values and traditions, a particular group with symbols as flag. songs which define it as ‘different’ from others. The attachment creates an identity and the appeal to that identity has a past and the power to mobilise the people. An important feature of nationalism is its to bring together people from different social and cultural levels. Nationalism is not merely an invention of the ruling classes to maintain the unconditional loyalty of the masses but also making believe that they have much in common that is more important than what separates them. This is one basic factors in trying to understand the persistence of nationalism.

In short, nationalism has two aspects

1. The political character of nationalism as an ideology defending the notion that the state and the nation should be congruent.
2. Capacity to be a provider of identity for individuals conscious of forming a group based upon a common past and culture, attachment to a concrete territory.

The subaltern perspective on Indian Nationalism:-

During the closing decades of the last century, the scholars associated with the journal Subaltern Studies shot into fame by vehemently criticising all other forms of Indian history-writing. They put forward their own interpretation of the modern history as a whole, particularly of Indian nationalism. Beginning in the early 1980s, with the publication of the first volume of Subaltern Studies (in1982), this trend of interpretation of Indian nationalism became quite influential among certain sections of Indian historians. It was declared to be a radical departure in modern Indian historiography which claimed to dissociate from allearlier views on Indian national movement. In what can be called the manifesto of the project, Ranajit Guha, in the very first volume of the Subaltern Studies, declared that ‘The historiography of Indian nationalism has for a long time been dominated by elitism-colonialist elitism and bourgeois-nationalist elitism. ‘According to Guha, all types of elitist histories have one thing in common and that is the absence of the politics of the people from their accounts. He criticised the three main trends in Indian historiography-1) Colonialist, which saw the colonial rule as the fulfillment of a mission to enlighten the ignorant people; 2) Nationalist, which visualised all the protest activities as parts of the making of the nation-state; and 3) Marxist, which subsumed the people’s struggles under the progression towards revolution and a socialist state. According to him, there are no attempts in these works to understand and write about the way in which the subaltern groups view the world and practice their politics. Earlier historians were criticised for ignoring the popular initiative and accepting the official negative characterisation of the rebel and the rebellion. In his essay ‘The Prose of Counter-Insurgency’, Ranajit Guha launched a scathing attack on the existing peasant and tribal histories in India for considering the peasant rebellions as ‘purely spontaneous and unpremeditated affairs’ and for ignoring the consciousness of the rebels themselves. He accused all the accounts of rebellions, starting with the immediate official reports to the histories written by the left radicals, of writing the texts of counter-insurgency which refused to recognise the agency of the people and ‘to acknowledge the insurgent as the subject of his own history’. According to Guha, they all failed to acknowledge that there existed a parallel subaltern domain of politics which was not influenced by the elite politics and which possessed an independent, self-generating dynamics. Its roots lay in pre-colonial popular social and political structures. However, this domain was not archaic: ‘As modern as indigenous elite politics, it was distinguished by its relatively greater depth in time as well as in structure’. In his view, there was now an urgent requirement for setting the record straight by viewing the history from the point-of-view of the subaltern classes. The politics of the people was crucial because it constituted an autonomous domain which’ neither originated from elite politics nor did its existence depend on the latter. The people’s politics differed from the elite politics in several crucial aspects.

The Subaltern historians, disenchanted with the Congress nationalism and its embodiment in the Indian state, rejected the thesis that popular mobilisation was the result of either economic conditions or initiatives from the top. They claimed to have discovered a popular autonomous domain which was opposed to the elite domain of politics. This domain of the subaltern was defined by perpetual resistance and rebellion against the elite. The subaltern historians also attributed a general unity to this domain clubbing together a variety of heterogeneous groups such as tribes, peasantry, proletariat and, occasionally, the middle classes as well. Moreover, this domain was said to be almost completely uninfluenced by the elite politics and was claimed to posses an independent, self-generating dynamics. The charismatic leadership was no longer viewed as the chief force behind a movement. It was instead the people’s interpretation of such charisma which acquired prominence in analysis of a movement. This idea is present in most of the early contributions to the series. Gyanendra Pandey, in ‘Peasant Revolt and Indian Nationalism’, argues that peasant movement in Awadh arose before and independently of the Non-cooperation movement. According to him, peasants’ understanding of the local power structure and its alliance with colonial power was more advanced than that of the Congress leaders. In fact, the peasant militancy was reduced wherever the Congress organisation was stronger. In Stephen Henningham’s account of the ‘Quit Indiain Bihar and the Eastern United Provinces’, the elite and the subaltern domains were clearly distinguished from each other. He talks of two movements existing together but parallel to each other ‘an elite uprising’, started by ‘the high caste rich peasants and small landlords who dominated the Congress’, and a ‘subaltern rebellion’ powered by ‘the poor, low caste people of the region’. David Hardiman, in his numerous articles, focused on subaltern themes and argued that whether it was the tribal assertion in South Gujarat, or the Bhil movement in Eastern Gujarat, or the radicalism of the agricultural workers during the Civil Disobedience Movement, there was an independent politics of the subaltern classes against the elites.

Similarly, Sumit Sarkar, in The Conditions and Nature of Subaltern Militancy, argues that the Non-cooperation movement in Bengal ‘revealed a picture of masses out stripping leaders…and the popular initiative eventually alarmed leaders into calling for a halt’. Thus, ‘the subaltern groups…formed a relatively autonomous political domain with specific features and collective mentalities which need to be explored, and that this was a world distinct from the domain of the elite politicians who in early twentieth century Bengal came overwhelmingly from high-caste educated professional groups connected with zamindari or intermediate tenure-holding’. Thus we see that in these and in many other essays in the earlier volumes, an attempt was made to separate the elite and the subaltern domains and to establishthe autonomy of subaltern consciousness and action. This phase was generally characterised by emphasis on subaltern themes and autonomous subaltern consciousness. The subalternist historians forcefully asserted that both the colonial ideology and the bourgeois nationalist ideology failed to establish their hegemony over the subaltern domain. Moreover, the Indian bourgeoisie failed in its prime work of speaking for the nation, and the Congress nationalism was bourgeois and elite which restrained popular radicalism. A few years after its inauguration as advocates of people’s voice in history and proponents of an autonomous subaltern political domain, the project of Subaltern Studies underwent significant changes. Under postmodernist and post colonialist influences, many of its contributors began to question its earlier emphasis on autonomous subaltern consciousness. Gayatri Spiva in particular, criticised the humanist viewpoint adopted by the earlier trend within Subaltern Studies. At another level, the idea of subalternity became much wider to include even the colonial elite as they were considered subaltern vis-à-vis the imperialist rulers, the phenomenon being termed by Partha Chatterjee as ‘subalternity of the elite. Chatterjee’s influential book, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World (1986), derived from the postcolonial framework of Edward Said which considered the colonial power-knowledge as overwhelming and irresistible. His later book, The Nation and its Fragments (1995) carries this analysis even further. Subalternity as a concept was also redefined. Earlier, it stood for the oppressed classes in opposition to the dominant classes both inside and outside. Later, it was conceptualised in opposition to colonialism, modernity and Enlightenment.The earlier emphasis on the ‘subaltern’ now gave way to a focus on ‘community’. Earlier the elite nationalism was stated to hijack the people’s initiatives for its own project; now the entire project of nationalism was declared to be only aversion of colonial discourse with its emphasis on centralisation of movement, and later of the state.

Cambridge School of Indian Nationalism:- The ‘Cambridge view’ was offered as an alternative explanation of the Indian nationalism. It sought to completely debunk the Indian national movement against the colonial rule led by leaders who had put their faith in the nationalist ideology. The historians associated with the Cambridge School asserted that there was no real contradiction between imperialism and the Indian people and the central contradiction lay among the Indians themselves.

Critique of Subaltern perspective of Indian Nationalism:-

1. Colonialist historiography is loaded with biases about the colonized and the nationalist historiography blurs the contributions made by the people through using umbrella terms like ‘masses’ which deprive them of their political consciousness. The Subaltern Studies historiography restored these individuals who were considered too low for elite. So, the Subaltern Studies historiography is believed to be the historiography of the protest.
2. It has reopened the long-believed historical events and brings historical inquiry to the foundations of Indian society. It has disagreed especially with an established political system, organization or belief. In contrary, it had failed to recognize the diversity of Indian society and has ignored the differences in power and status that were present prior to colonization. Sumit Sarkar has criticized it by saying that Subalternist romanticize the past as they held the view that pre- colonial communities knew nothing of power relations and communal conflict. Thus, the scope of Subaltern Studies School of historiography is also narrow in character.
3. Subaltern Studies emphasized the subordinated class consciousness. The ‘Subaltern consciousness’ is a significant but controversial concept. It means the consciousness about oneself and realizing that they had been dominated by the other. The subaltern consciousness will replace the dominant culture by a living culture of the majority in the history of the Indian society. According to Gayatri Spivak, the subalterns can never speak for themselves and had always been dependent on elite to talk about their rights, because the subalterns are not conscious of their status insociety.
4. Subaltern Studies has its roots in Marxism. It encompasses cultural, social, political aspects into Marxism. Ironically, though Gramsci himself was a Communist activist, the scholars outside or opposed to communist parties have most ardently embraced his Prison Notebooks.
5. The contextual factors of Subaltern Studies have been changed in post-1988 period i.e. after Ranajit Guha’s retirement from the editorial team of Subaltern Studies. Subaltern Studies School has been actively engaged in post-colonial discourse and stepped out of Indian nationalism and moved into the cultural history of colonialism. There has been a shift in intellectual focus. It now paid total attention to British colonial discourse and failed to study discourse of Hindus, Muslims and other colonized subjects though it emerged out of Indian history. It is now an interdisciplinary project, the goals of which have been changed along with its contributors as not a single historian has contributed in Subaltern Studies.

Conclusion

Subaltern School of Nationalism has endeavoured to record the lost history of the past and to give the voice to those ‘small voices’ who have been deprived of their rights and who have been drowned since long. It has tried to recover the lost picture of the common masses, who had been subjected by the elite. The Subaltern Studies’ historians have been greatly influenced by the theoretical discourses of Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault.

The Subaltern School of Nationalism has highlighted a range of themes. They portrayed the marginalized sections of society and provided a different approach and criticized the statist discourses. They highlighted the role of indigenous resistance and promoted the role of those who have talked about the marginalized sections of society. The importance of subaltern school cannot be denied as it has given primary focus to those who had rarely been given due significance in society. The declared aim of the subaltern studies was to produce historical analyses in which the subaltern groups were given primary importance.

The Revolt of 1857 was a significant rebellion in India between 1857 and 1858 against the government of the British East India Company, which acted as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The uprising began on May 10, 1857, with a mutiny of Company army sepoys at the garrison town of Meerut, 40 miles northeast of Delhi. It eventually burst into further mutinies and civilian rebellions, primarily in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though there were also incidents of insurrection in the north and east. 

Background

• Following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British took the first step toward gaining control of northern India.
• And in 1857, there was a great ‘Revolt,’ which was a result of the character and practices of colonial administration after 1757, and which resulted in significant changes in British policy toward India.
• Over time, the cumulative effect of British expansionist tactics, economic exploitation, and administrative innovations had harmed all—rulers of Indian states, sepoys, zamindars, peasants, traders, craftsmen, gurus, maulvis, and so on.
• In 1857, the simmering anger erupted in a violent storm that rocked the British empire in India to its very core.
• However, there were intermittent public eruptions in the form of religiopolitical violence, tribal movements, peasant uprisings, agrarian riots, and civil rebellions between 1757 and 1857.
• Even in famine years, increased revenue expectations sparked resentment.
• Because the moneylenders had the protection of the police, many protests against local moneylenders escalated into rebellions against the Company’s control.
• Interference by the British in native religious/traditional rituals sparked discontent and led to rebellions.
• Rebellions and uprisings happened almost from the beginning of the East India Company‘s reign, for various reasons in various places.
• Even after the 1857 Revolt, some of the movements persisted.
• Major revolts broke out in the south, east, west, and north-eastern districts, which the Company brutally repressed.

Causes

The origins of the 1857 revolt, like those of previous uprisings, arose from all facts – sociocultural, economic, and political – of the Indian population’s everyday existence, cutting across all sectors and classes.

Economic Causes

• The East India Company‘s colonial practices shattered Indian society’s conventional economic foundation.
• Due to severe taxes, peasants were forced to take out loans from moneylenders/traders at exorbitant interest rates, with the latter frequently evicting the former from their property for non-payment of debt dues.
• While the issue of landless peasants and rural indebtedness has plagued Indian society to this day, these moneylenders and businessmen emerged as the new landlords.
• The zamindari system, which had been in place for a long time, had to be dismantled.
• The artists and handicrafts people suffered during the British administration as well.
• Furthermore, British policies discouraged Indian handicrafts while emphasizing British items.
• At the same time, imports of British products into India were subject to cheap duties, which encouraged their admission.
• Cotton and silk textile exports from India had virtually ceased by the mid-nineteenth century.
• With the frequent use of a status quo by the state, Zamindars, the traditional landed nobility, had their property rights confiscated.
• The sepoy revolution provided a chance for these dispossessed taluqdars to confront the British and reclaim what they had lost.
• The collapse of Indian industry exacerbated the burden on agriculture and land, which could no longer sustain all of the country’s inhabitants; the country’s uneven development led to pauperization in general.

Political Causes

• Through policies like ‘Effective Control,’ ‘Subsidiary Alliance,‘ and ‘Doctrine of Lapse,’ the East India Company‘s greedy policy of aggrandizement accompanied by broken pledges and promises resulted in contempt for the Company
• And the loss of political prestige, as well as caused suspicion in the minds of almost all the ruling princes in India.
• Hindu princes were denied the right of succession.
• The Mughals were mortified when, following Prince Faqiruddin’s death in 1856, Lord Canning declared that, in addition to the renunciations agreed to by Prince Faqiruddin, the next prince on succession would have to surrender the royal title and the ancestral Mughal palaces.
• The fall of rulers – the old aristocracy – had a negative impact on those sectors of Indian society that relied on cultural and religious pursuits for their livelihood.

Administrative Causes

• Corruption was rampant in the Company’s administration, particularly among the police, minor officials, and subordinate courts, which was a major source of dissatisfaction.
• Many historians believe that the current levels of corruption in India are a result of the Company’s control.
• Furthermore, the nature of British rule gave it a distant and alien appearance in the view of Indians: a form of absentee sovereignty.

Socio-Religious Causes

• The British administration’s attitude toward the native Indian population had racial overtones and a superiority mentality.
• Indians viewed the activity of Christian missionaries in India who flew the British flag with distrust.
• A considerable segment of the populace saw initiatives at socio-religious change, such as the elimination of sati, support for widow-marriage, and women’s education, as outsiders interfering in the social and religious spheres of Indian culture.
• These fears were exacerbated by the government’s decision to tax mosque and temple lands and the passage of laws like the Religious Disabilities Act of 1856, which altered Hindu customs by declaring, for example, that a change of religion did not prevent a son from inheriting his ‘heathen’ father’s property.

Influence of Outside Events

• The revolt of 1857 occurred during the First Afghan War (1838–42), the Punjab Wars (1845–49), and the Crimean Wars (1854–56), all of which cost the British a lot of money.
• These have clear psychological ramifications. The British were perceived as being weak, and it was thought that they might be vanquished.

Dissatisfaction Among the Sepoys

• The sepoys’ religious views and biases increasingly clashed with the circumstances of duty in the Company’s Army and cantonments.
• Indian sepoys, who were generally conservative by nature, interpreted restrictions on wearing caste and sectarian marks, as well as secret rumors of chaplains’ proselytizing activities (often maintained at the Company’s expense, which meant at Indian expense) as interference in their religious affairs.
• Crossing the seas meant losing one’s caste to the devout Hindus of the period.
• The General Service Enlistment Act, passed by Lord Canning’s administration in 1856, compelled all future recruits to the Bengal Army to submit a promise to serve wherever the government wanted their services.
• There was animosity as a result of this.
• In comparison to his British colleague, the Indian sepoy was equally dissatisfied with his pay.
• The edict that they would not be awarded the foreign service allowance (Bhatta) when serving in Sindh or Punjab was a more immediate source of displeasure for the sepoys.
• The acquisition of Awadh, the home of numerous sepoys, aggravated their emotions even more.
• At every turn, the Indian sepoy was treated as a second-class citizen, discriminated against ethnically and in issues of advancement and privileges.
• The sepoys’ unhappiness was not restricted to military problems; it expressed a broader dissatisfaction with and hostility to British authority.
• In truth, the sepoy was a “peasant in uniform” whose mindset was not separated from that of the rural populace.

The Revolt

• The incidence of greased cartridges finally sparked the Revolt of 1857.
• There was a rumor that the new Enfield rifles’ cartridges were lubricated with cow and pig fat.
• The sepoys had to nibble off the paper on the cartridges before loading these guns.
• They were rebuffed by both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
• Lord Canning attempted to right the wrong by withdrawing the problematic cartridges, but the harm had already been done. There was rioting in several locations.
• The revolt began on May 10, 1857, at Meerut, 58 kilometers from Delhi, and quickly spread across a large territory, encompassing Punjab in the north and the Narmada in the south, as well Bihar in the east and Rajputana in the west.
• There were rumblings of dissatisfaction in many cantonments even before the Meerut tragedy.
• In February 1857, the 19th Native Infantry at Berhampore (West Bengal), which refused to use the newly imported Enfield rifle and mutinied, was dissolved.
• Mangal Pande, a young sepoy in the 34th Native Infantry, went a step further and shot at his unit’s sergeant major at Barrackpore.
• On April 8, he was overcome and hanged, and his unit was dissolved in May.
• Then there was the blast in Meerut. The lubricated cartridges were declined by 90 troops of the 3rd Native Cavalry on April 24.
• On May 9, 85 of them were found guilty, condemned to ten years in jail, and placed in shackles.
• The Indian soldiers stationed at Meerut erupted in a widespread mutiny as a result of this.
• They liberated their imprisoned friends the next day, May 10, executed their superiors, and raised the insurrection flag. After sunset, they left for Delhi.
• The greased cartridges did not establish a new source of dissatisfaction in the Army; rather, they provided the catalyst for long-simmering resentment to surface.

Bahadur Shah

• The Great Revolt’s epicenter would soon be Delhi, and Bahadur Shah would be its emblem.
• This spontaneous elevation of the last Mughal ruler to the throne of India was a recognition that the Mughal dynasty’s lengthy reign had become the traditional emblem of India’s political unity.
• The sepoys had turned a military mutiny into a revolutionary war with this one deed, and all Indian chiefs who took part in the insurrection rushed to declare their allegiance to the Mughal emperor.
• It also implied that the insurgents were acting for political reasons
• Though religion had a role, the rebels’ overall worldview was shaped more by their image of the British as the common enemy than by their religious identity.

Leaders of the Revolt and Storm Centres

• The uprising expanded over the whole region, from Patna’s outskirts to Rajasthan’s borders.
• Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior, and Arrah in Bihar are the primary centers of insurrection in these areas.
• Lucknow was the capital of the Awadh state. Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the ex-king of Awadh’s Begum, assumed command of the insurrection.
• Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, led the mutiny at Kanpur.
• He joined the insurrection largely because the British had taken away his pension.
• The victory was fleeting. After further forces came, the British were able to regain Kanpur. The uprising was put down with fury.
• Nana Saheb managed to flee, but his superb leader Tantia Tope fought on. Tantia Tope was defeated, jailed, and hung in the end.
• When the British refused to acknowledge her adopted son’s claim to the kingdom of Jhansi, the twenty-two-year-old Rani Lakshmi Bai commanded the rebels.
  • She battled valiantly against the British army, but the English eventually overpowered her.
• After Rani Lakshmi Bai fled, she was joined by Tantia Tope, and the two marched to Gwalior, where they were arrested.
• There was a fierce battle, and the Rani of Jhansi fought like a tigress till she perished, battling until the last.
• The British were able to retake Gwalior.
• Kunwar Singh, a member of a royal family from Jagdispur, Bihar, spearheaded the insurrection.

Contributions of Civilians

• The sepoy revolt was accompanied by a civil populace uprising, mainly in the north-western regions and Awadh.
• Their long-held complaints were quickly expressed, and they rose in force to voice their resistance to British authority.
• The farmers, craftsmen, shopkeepers, day laborers, zamindars, religious mendicants, priests, and public servants all participated in the insurrection, giving it actual power and the appearance of a popular uprising.
• Peasants and petty zamindars vented their frustrations here by assaulting the moneylenders and zamindars who had evicted them from their land.
• They took advantage of the uprising to destroy the accounts and debt records of the moneylenders.
• They also targeted law courts, revenue offices (tehsils), tax records, and police stations, all of which were founded by the British.
• Within a month after the rebels captured Delhi, the uprising had spread to other regions of the country.

Suppression of the Revolt

• After a lengthy and bloody battle, the British finally took Delhi on September 20, 1857, and the uprising was eventually put down.
• The siege’s commander, John Nicholson, was severely wounded and died as a result of his injuries.
• Bahadur Shah was apprehended and imprisoned.
• The royal princes were apprehended and killed on the spot by Lieutenant Hudson, who shot them at point-blank range.
• In 1862, the emperor was banished to Rangoon, where he died. As a result, the mighty Mughal dynasty was ultimately and totally destroyed.
• All of the revolt’s major leaders fell one by one.
• The military operations to retake Kanpur were intertwined with those to reclaim Lucknow.
• British control over India was largely restored by the end of 1859.
• The British government had to send massive amounts of soldiers, money, and guns into the nation, albeit the Indians had to pay for it all afterward by suppressing themselves.

Causes of Failure of the Revolt

• All-India participation was absent – One cause was the revolt’s limited geographical extension.
• It lacked an all-India veneer; India’s eastern, southern, and western regions were mostly unharmed.
• This was most likely due to the Company’s harsh suppression of previous uprisings in those areas.
• All classes did not join – Even Awadh taluqdars backed off after pledges of land restoration were spelled out, and big zamindars served as storm breakers.’
• Moneylenders and merchants were particularly vulnerable to the mutineers’ rage, and their interests were better safeguarded under British patronage.
• Educated Indians saw the insurrection as backward-looking, pro-feudal, and a backlash to modernity by old conservative forces; these individuals had great hopes that the British would usher in a period of modernization.
• The majority of Indian kings declined to join and frequently aided the British.
• Poor Arms and Equipment – The Indian forces were inadequately armed, fighting mostly with swords and spears, with few cannons and muskets.
• European soldiers, on the other hand, were armed with cutting-edge weaponry such as the Enfield rifle.
• The electric telegraph kept the commander-in-chief up to date on the rebels’ movements and plans.
• Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised – The uprising was poorly organized, with no central leadership or coordination.
• In terms of generalship, the main rebel commanders – Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh, and Laxmibai – were no match for their British opponents.
• The East India Company, on the other hand, was lucky to have persons of remarkable ability such as the Lawrence brothers, John Nicholson, James Outram, Henry Havelock, and others.
• No Unified Ideology – The mutineers lacked a thorough knowledge of colonial control, as well as a future-oriented agenda, a cohesive philosophy, a political vision, and a sociological alternative.
• The insurgents represented a variety of forces with varying grievances and political ideologies.
• At this point in Indian history, a lack of unity among Indians was probably inescapable.
• In India, modern nationalism was unheard of. In reality, the insurrection of 1857 was essential in drawing the Indian people together and instilling in them a sense of belonging to a single country.

Nature and Consequences of the Revolt

• The uprising of 1857 was a watershed moment in Indian history.
• It resulted in significant changes in the British government’s administrative system and policy.
• The revolt was described by British historians as a sepoy mutiny.
• The British historians believed that the sepoys, as well as some landholders and princes with vested interests, organized the insurrection, ignoring the local people’s concerns and involvement in the movement.
• Self-interested reasons, according to a recent study in 1857, did not play a significant role prior to the concerted opposition to the unpopular British administration.
• The Revolt of 1857 is considered by some historians to be the first struggle for Indian independence.
• Those who disagree with this perspective say that the rebel leaders did not try to create a new social order.
• The dissatisfied devotion and intentions were shattered, and they frequently looked back to society and policies that were no longer feasible.” As a result, it was a restoration rather than a revolution.
• Rural peasants, in addition to sepoys and Taluqdars, took part in the revolution in considerable numbers.
• In the instance of Awadh, it has been shown that the attack was undertaken jointly by taluqdars and peasants.
• Peasants continued to relocate even after taluqdars made peace with the British in several locations.
• The sepoys had ties to their kinsmen in the countryside, and their insurrection inspired the civilian populace to air their concerns against British authority.
• As a result, the 1857 Revolt took on the appearance of a popular revolt.

Significance of the Revolt

• Even though the British were able to put down the uprising, they were aware of the intensity of the people’s discontent.
• The events of 1857 forced the British to reconsider their stance toward India in the aftermath of the uprising; as a result, they devised a plan to prevent future revolts.
• The British issued a pledge that they would not extend their existing geographical conquests in order to regain the trust of local princes.
• The loyal princes received special honors. To check troops’ cohesion, community, caste, tribal, and regional loyalty were fostered during army recruiting.
• By subtly exploiting the caste, religious, and regional identities of Indians, the British used the ‘divide and rule strategy.
• The proclamation of Royal Proclamation in 1858 was another key result of the Revolt of 1857.
• The British Crown took complete control of India’s government with this proclamation, thereby ending the East India Company’s dominion.
• Even though the rebels were defeated, their valiant fight against the British Raj made a lasting impact on the public.
• This Revolt had a significant impact on the spirit of Indian nationalism during its formative years in the second half of the nineteenth century.

Hindu – Muslim Unity

• At all levels of the revolt – people, troops, and leaders – there was the perfect collaboration between Hindus and Muslims.
• All rebels recognized Bahadur Shah Zafar, a Muslim, as emperor, and the Hindu sepoys in Meerut immediately began marching to Delhi, the Mughal imperial capital.
• “Two things stand out plainly in the middle of the complex tale of the Rising of 1857,” Maulana Azad writes.
  • The first is the incredible sense of oneness that existed in India during this time between Hindus and Muslims.
  • The other is the people’s great devotion to the Mughal Crown.” Both Hindus and Muslims, rebels and sepoys acknowledged each other’s feelings.
• Once the insurrection was successful in a given location, an immediate ban on cow slaughter was imposed.
• Both Hindus and Muslims were well-represented in the leadership; for example, Nana Saheb had Azimullah, a Muslim who specialized in political advertising, as an advisor, while Laxmibai had Afghan warriors on her side.
• Thus, the events of 1857 revealed that, prior to 1858, India’s people and politics were not fundamentally communal or sectarian.

Conclusion

For the first time in 1857, peasant dissatisfaction, along with protests from other areas of society, united disparate elements of society together in a coherent campaign against the British takeover. Many parts of Indian society were brought together for a similar purpose, although in a limited fashion. Despite the fact that the revolution failed to achieve its aim, it did sow the seeds of Indian nationalism. Many historians see the events of 1857 as an early indication of nationalism.

• The Act of Parliament in 1858, known as the Government of India Act 1858, transferred the power to govern India from the East India Company to the British Crown. Under this act, the authority over India was exercised by a Secretary of State for India, who was a member of the British Cabinet and responsible to Parliament. The Secretary of State was aided by a Council, initially known as the India Council, which was later reconstituted as the Council of India.
• The Act established that the ultimate power over India remained with the British Parliament. The Governor-General of India, who was also given the title of Viceroy as the Crown’s representative, continued to carry out the government’s functions. However, with time, the Viceroy’s role was increasingly reduced to a subordinate status about the British government, both in policy-making and policy execution.
• The Act also brought about changes in the composition and functioning of the Council. Initially, the Council consisted of retired British-Indian officials, but by 1869, it was completely subordinated to the Secretary of State. The Secretary of State had control over the minutest details of administration and could constantly monitor and direct the government’s activities through improved communication systems like the submarine cable.
• It is important to note that no Indian had a voice in the India Council, the British Cabinet, or the British Parliament. Indian opinion had little impact on government policy, while British industrialists, merchants, and bankers gained influence over the Government of India.
• The Act of 1858 also expanded the Governor-General’s Council to include additional members for lawmaking purposes, known as the Imperial Legislative Council. However, this council had limited powers and served as an advisory body rather than a true legislative institution. It could not discuss important measures or financial matters without prior approval from the government. The Legislative Council had no control over the budget or the executive, and bills passed by the council required the approval of the Governor-General and could be disallowed by the Secretary of State.
• The Indian members of the Legislative Council were few and were nominated by the Governor-General, often comprising princes, zamindars, merchants, or retired senior government officials. They were not elected by the Indian people, further limiting the representation of Indian interests in the legislative process.

Provincial Administration

• During British colonial rule, India was divided into provinces for administrative convenience. The three major provinces, Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, were known as Presidencies and were administered by a Governor and his three Executive Councils appointed by the Crown. These Presidencies had more rights and powers compared to the other provinces.
• The remaining provinces were administered by Lieutenant Governors and Chief Commissioners who were appointed by the Governor-General. However, with the enactment of the Act of 1861, there was a shift towards decentralization. It was mandated that legislative councils, similar to the central legislative council, be established in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal, followed by other provinces.
• The provincial legislative councils, like their central counterpart, were advisory bodies consisting of officials and a small number of non-official Indians and Englishmen. However, they lacked the powers and democratic representation of a true parliament.
• One of the major issues resulting from extreme centralization was related to finances. Under the centralized system, revenues from all over the country and from various sources were collected at the center and then distributed to the provincial governments. The Central Government exercised strict control over provincial expenditure, but this system proved inefficient in practice. The central government found it difficult to supervise revenue collection by the provincial governments or effectively monitor their expenditure.
• Constant disagreements arose between the central and provincial governments over minute administrative and financial details. Moreover, the provincial governments had no incentive to be economical in their expenditure. Recognizing these challenges, steps were taken to decentralize public finance.
• In 1870, Lord Mayo initiated the first step by separating central and provincial finances. Fixed sums from central revenues were allocated to provincial governments for specific services such as Police, Jails, Education, Medical Services, and Roads, which the provinces could administer as they saw fit. Lord Lytton further expanded this scheme in 1877, transferring additional heads of expenditure such as Land Revenue, Excise, General Administration, and Law and Justice to the provinces.
• To meet the additional expenditure, provincial governments were entitled to a fixed share of the income realized from specific revenue sources within their province, such as Stamps, Excise Taxes, and Income Tax.
• In 1882, Lord Ripon introduced further changes. The system of fixed grants to the provinces was ended, and instead, a province was entitled to the entire income from certain sources of revenue within its jurisdiction, as well as a fixed share of the overall income. All revenue sources were categorized into three heads: General, Provincial, and those to be divided between the central and provincial governments.
• The financial arrangements between the center and the provinces were subject to review every five years to ensure their effectiveness and appropriateness.

Local Bodies

• Due to financial difficulties and the need for decentralization, the British government attempted to promote local government through the establishment of municipalities and district boards. However, the initial local bodies formed between 1864 and 1868 were predominantly composed of nominated members and were presided over by District Magistrates.
• These local bodies did not truly represent local self-government, nor were they accepted as such by the Indian population. Instead, they were seen as mechanisms for imposing additional taxes on the people. The lack of genuine representation and democratic processes undermined their legitimacy.
• In 1882, the Lord Ripon Government introduced a policy to administer local affairs through rural and urban local bodies, with a majority of non-official members. The intention was to gradually introduce elections wherever feasible, allowing the people to elect non-official members. The resolution also allowed for the election of a non-official as Chairman of a local body.
• Provincial acts were passed to implement this policy, but elected members remained a minority in district boards and many municipalities. Moreover, the right to vote was restricted to a small number of individuals, further limiting the democratic nature of these bodies.
• District officials continued to serve as presidents of district boards, although non-officials gradually assumed the role of chairmen of municipal committees. The government maintained strict control over the activities of the local bodies and retained the power to suspend or supersede them at its discretion.
• As a result, the local bodies operated more like government departments rather than genuine examples of local self-government. They lacked autonomy and were subject to significant control and interference from the colonial administration.

Change in Army

• After the transfer of power to the British Crown in 1858, significant reorganization took place in the Indian army, primarily aimed at preventing another revolt like the one that occurred in 1857. The British rulers recognized the importance of maintaining control over the army as a means to secure their rule.

To minimize the potential for Indian soldiers to revolt, several measures were implemented:

• The dominance of the European branch of the army was ensured. The proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was increased and fixed, with ratios of one European to two Indians in the Bengal Army and two Europeans to five Indians in the Madras and Bombay armies.
• European troops were strategically placed in key military and geographical positions. Important branches of the army, such as artillery, and later tanks and armored corps, were exclusively manned by Europeans.
• The policy of excluding Indians from the officer corps was strictly maintained. Until 1914, no Indian could rise above the rank of subedar.
• The organization of the Indian section of the army followed a policy of “balance and counterpoise” or “divide and rule.” Discrimination based on caste, region, and religion was practiced during recruitment. Indians were categorized into “martial” and “non-martial” classes, with certain regions and communities deemed non-martial and excluded from significant recruitment.
• Communal, caste, tribal, and regional loyalties were encouraged among the soldiers to prevent the growth of nationalist sentiment. The Indian regiments were intentionally mixed with various castes and groups to maintain a balance of power.
• Efforts were made to isolate the army from nationalist ideas. Measures were taken to prevent newspapers, journals, and nationalist publications from reaching the soldiers.
• Despite these attempts to control and manipulate the Indian army, nationalist sentiments eventually spread within its ranks. Over time, sections of the Indian army played significant roles in the struggle for India’s independence. These efforts to suppress nationalist sentiment ultimately proved unsuccessful in the long run.

Public Service

• The Indian Civil Service (ICS) was the highest-ranking civil service in British India, and its members held all positions of power and responsibility in the administration. The ICS was recruited through an annual open competitive examination held in London, but in practice, the doors of the ICS remained barred to Indians for several reasons, including
• The examination was held in London, which was inconvenient and expensive for Indians to travel to.
• The examination was conducted in English, which was a foreign language for most Indians.
• The examination required knowledge of Classical Greek and Latin, which was not part of the standard Indian curriculum.
• The maximum age for entry into the ICS was gradually reduced, making it more difficult for older Indians to compete.
• In addition to the ICS, other administration departments such as the Police, Public Works Department, and Railways also reserved their superior and highly paid posts for British citizens. This was done to ensure that British interests were maintained in India.
• Although some Indians did eventually gain entry to the ICS and other administrative services, they were never given positions of real power. The British continued to control the levers of power in India, and Indians were largely excluded from decision-making. This led to growing resentment among Indians and eventually contributed to the Indian independence movement.

Here are some additional details that you may find interesting:

• The first Indian to be admitted to the ICS was Satyendranath Tagore, the brother of the famous poet Rabindranath Tagore.
• The Indian Civil Service was abolished in 1947 after India gained independence.
• The Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the highest-ranking civil service in independent India, was modeled on the ICS.

Relations with the Princely States

• Before 1857, the British took advantage of every opportunity to annex princely states. However, the Revolt of 1857 prompted the British to adopt a different approach towards these Indian States.
• A majority of the Indian princes not only remained loyal to the British but actively aided in suppressing the Revolt.
• In 1862, Canning declared that “the Crown of England stood forward, the unquestioned Ruler and Paramount Power in all India.” The princes were compelled to acknowledge British supremacy.
• In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of “Empress of India” to emphasize British sovereignty over the entire Indian subcontinent.
• Lord Curzon later clarified that the princes ruled their states merely as agents of the British Crown. The princes accepted this subordinate position willingly, becoming junior partners in the Empire, as they were guaranteed their continued rule over their states.
• As the paramount power, the British claimed the right to oversee the internal governance of the princely states. They not only interfered in day-to-day administration through the presence of Residents but also insisted on appointing and removing ministers and other high-ranking officials.
• Beginning in 1868, the British government recognized the adopted heir of the deposed ruler, and in 1881, full control of the state was restored to the young Maharajah.
• In 1874, the ruler of Baroda, Malhar Rao Gaekwad, was accused of misrule and attempting to poison the British Resident. Following a brief trial, he was deposed.

Administrative Policies

• Following the revolt of 1857, the British underwent a significant change in their attitude towards India, leading to the adoption of reactionary policies.
• A prevailing belief emerged that Indians were deemed unfit to govern themselves and must be ruled by Britain indefinitely. This reactionary approach was evident across various aspects.

Divide and Rule Policy

• The British had initially conquered India by exploiting the disunity among Indian powers and pitting them against each other.
• After 1858, they continued to implement a policy of divide and rule by creating divisions between the princes and the people, different provinces, various castes, different groups, and, notably, Hindus and Muslims.
• The unity displayed by Hindus and Muslims during the revolt of 1857 unsettled the foreign rulers, prompting them to undermine this unity to weaken the growing nationalist movement.
• Immediately after the revolt, the British repressed Muslims confiscated their lands and properties on a large scale, and openly favored Hindus. However, after 1870, this policy was reversed, and efforts were made to foster divisions between the upper-class and middle-class Muslims and the nationalist movement.
• Due to the industrial and commercial backwardness of India and the lack of social services, educated Indians heavily relied on government employment. This created intense competition among them for the limited government positions available.
• The British government exploited this competition to fuel provincial and communal rivalries and animosity. They offered official favors on a communal basis in exchange for loyalty, effectively pitting educated Muslims against educated Hindus.

Hostility towards Educated Indians

• The Government of India had actively promoted modern education after 1833.
• The establishment of the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857 marked the rapid spread of higher education.
• Initially, many British officials praised the educated Indians for their refusal to participate in the revolt of 1857. However, this favorable official attitude towards educated Indians quickly changed as some of them began utilizing their newly acquired modern knowledge to analyze the imperialistic nature of British rule and advocate for Indian participation in governance.
• As the educated Indians started organizing a nationalist movement among the people and founded the Indian National Congress in 1885, British officials became actively hostile towards higher education and educated Indians.
• They took deliberate measures to restrict higher education and demean educated Indians, commonly referring to them as ‘babus.’
• Thus, the British authorities turned against those Indians who had embraced modern Western knowledge and advocated for progress along contemporary lines. However, such progress directly contradicted the fundamental interests and policies of British imperialism in India.
• The official opposition to educated Indians and higher education serves as evidence that British rule in India had already exhausted any potential it initially held for progress.

Attitude towards Zamindars

• The British government sought to cultivate alliances with the most conservative segment of Indian society, including the princes, zamindars, and landlords.
• Similar to the treatment of the princes, the zamindars and landlords were also appeased. For instance, the lands of many talukdars in Avadh were returned to them.
• The zamindars and landlords were now glorified as the traditional and “natural” leaders of the Indian people. Their interests and privileges were safeguarded, and they were allowed to retain their land, often at the expense of the peasants. They were utilized as a counterbalance to the nationalist-minded intellectuals.
• In return, the zamindars and landlords recognized that their position depended on the preservation of British rule and thus became its steadfast supporters.

Attitude towards Social Reforms

• As part of their policy of aligning with conservative classes, the British abandoned their previous support for social reformers.
• The British believed that their earlier social reform measures, such as the abolition of Sati (widow burning) and allowing widows to remarry, had been significant factors contributing to the 1857 revolt.
• Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, in his book “The Discovery of India,” noted, “Because of this natural alliance of the British power with the reactionaries in India, it became the guardian and upholder of many an evil custom and practice, which it otherwise condemned.”
• It is worth noting, however, that the British did not always remain indifferent to social issues. By supporting the status quo, they indirectly protected existing social evils.
• By promoting casteism and communalism for political purposes, the British actively fueled social reactions and divisions.

Restrictions on the Press

• The British introduced the printing press in India, which led to the development of the modern press.
• Educated Indians quickly recognized the press’s potential to educate public opinion and influence government policies through criticism.
• Indian leaders such as Ram Mohan Roy, Vidyasagar, Dadabhai Naoroji, Justice Ranade, Surendranath Banerjee, Lokmanya Tilak, G. Subramaniya Iyer, C. Karunakara Menon, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and others played a crucial role in starting newspapers and turning them into a powerful political force.
• The Indian press enjoyed freedom after Charles Metcalfe lifted restrictions in 1835. This move was enthusiastically welcomed by educated Indians and partly influenced their initial support for British rule in India.
• However, as nationalists began using the press to awaken national consciousness and criticize the government’s reactionary policies, officials turned against the Indian press and sought to curtail its freedom. This led to the passage of the Vernacular Press Act in 1878, which imposed significant restrictions on Indian-language newspapers.
• The Act faced strong opposition and was repealed in 1882, granting the Indian press considerable freedom for about 25 years. However, with the rise of the militant Swadeshi and Boycott movement after 1905, repressive press laws were reintroduced in 1908 and 1910.

Racial Antagonism

• The British in India maintained a sense of racial superiority and kept themselves separate from the Indians.
• The revolt of 1857 and the atrocities committed by both sides further deepened the divide between the Indians and the British, who openly asserted their racial supremacy and displayed racial arrogance.
• Visible examples of racialism were evident in the segregation of railway compartments, waiting rooms, parks, hotels, swimming pools, clubs, etc., reserved exclusively for Europeans.

Extreme Backwardness of Social Services

• The Government of India allocated a significant portion of its income to the military, wars, and administrative services while neglecting social services.
• In 1886, out of its total net revenue of nearly Rs. 47 crores, the Indian government spent nearly 19.41 crores on the army and 17 crores on civil administration, but only about 2 crores on education, medicine, and public health, and a mere 65 lakhs on irrigation.
• Any progress made in providing services like sanitation, water supply, and public health was usually limited to urban areas, particularly the British or modern sections of cities, leaving the majority of the population underserved.

Labour Legislation

• In the 19th century, workers in modern factories and plantations faced harsh conditions. They were required to work long hours, typically between 12 and 16 hours per day, without a weekly day of rest. Women and children were subjected to the same grueling work hours as men, and wages were extremely low, ranging from Rs. 4 to 20 per month.
• The factories themselves were overcrowded, poorly lit, lacking proper ventilation, and unhygienic. Working with machines posed significant hazards, resulting in frequent accidents.
• The Government of India, generally favoring capitalist interests, took limited and insufficient steps to address the dire conditions in modern factories, many of which were owned by Indian industrialists. Pressure from British manufacturers influenced the government to pass factory laws, as they feared that cheap labor in India would enable Indian manufacturers to dominate the local market.
• The first Indian Factory Act was enacted in 1881, primarily focusing on child labor. According to this Act, children below the age of 7 were prohibited from working in factories, while those aged 7 to 12 could not work for more than 9 hours a day. Children were also entitled to four holidays per month. The Act also mandated the proper fencing of dangerous machinery.
• The second Indian Factory Act was passed in 1891 and introduced a weekly holiday for all workers. Working hours for women were limited to 11 hours per day, while daily work hours for children were reduced to 7. However, working hours for men remained unregulated.
• It is important to note that neither of these Acts applied to British-owned tea and coffee plantations. On the contrary, the government supported foreign planters in ruthlessly exploiting their workers. Penal laws were passed in 1863, 1865, 1870, 1873, and 1882 to assist planters, and once a laborer signed a contract to work on a plantation, they were legally obligated to do so. Breach of contract was considered a criminal offense, and laborers could be arrested at the planter’s discretion.
• In the 20th century, better labor laws were enacted under the influence of the growing trade union movement. However, the working conditions for the Indian laboring class remained extremely challenging and deplorable.

Organization of the Police

The police system established by Cornwallis during British rule in India had several key features:

• Transfer of Police Functions: Cornwallis relieved the zamindars (landlords) of their police responsibilities and created a separate, regular police force responsible for maintaining law and order.
• System of Circles or Thanas: Cornwallis introduced a system of circles or thanas, which were police stations headed by an Indian officer known as a daroga. Later, the post of District Superintendent of Police was established to oversee the police organization at the district level.
• Limited Opportunities for Indians: Despite the involvement of Indian officers at lower levels, Indians were generally excluded from holding superior positions within the police force.
• Village Watchmen: In rural areas, the duties of the police were often carried out by village watchmen who were supported by the local community.
• The police force gradually achieved success in reducing major crimes, such as dacoity (banditry), and played a significant role in suppressing the activities of thugs who targeted and harmed travelers, particularly in Central India.
• During the emergence of the national movement, the police were utilized to suppress and control activities perceived as threats to British control. Their role included preventing large-scale conspiracies against foreign rule and suppressing the nationalist movement as it gained momentum.
• It is worth noting that the police system in India was established earlier than the development of a similar system in Britain, giving India an advantage in this regard during the colonial period.

Police Commission (1860)

• During the pre-colonial period, various rulers, including the Mughals, had their systems of law enforcement. There were separate police forces for maintaining law and order, such as faujdars, mails, and kotwals, who performed different functions in different regions. Additionally, village watchmen were responsible for protecting villages during the night.

Police Reforms During the Colonial Period:

• The first Police Commission was established in 1860, following an inquiry into cases of police torture that had taken place in 1855. The 1861 Police Act was enacted based on the recommendations of this commission, primarily in response to the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. This act, which is still in effect today, placed the police force under the supervision of the state government. The appointment of the Commissioner of Police was made by the Chief or the Home Minister, and the police were not directly accountable to civil society or other democratic institutions.
• Under the reformed system, the position of the Superintendent of Police (SP) was abolished, and the collector/magistrate took charge of the police force in their jurisdiction. Each division had a commissioner who acted as the Special Police Officer. This organizational structure led to disorganization within the police force and placed a heavy burden on the collector/magistrate.
• The Police Commission’s recommendations included the establishment of a civil constabulary system that maintained the existing village setup with village watchmen, but with direct coordination with the larger constabulary. The hierarchy of the police force included an inspector-general at the provincial level, a deputy inspector-general at the range level, and a superintendent at the district level.

The Indian Police Act of 1861

• The Indian Police Act of 1861 aimed to reorganize the police force to enhance its effectiveness and efficiency. It replaced the military police with a uniform civil police force under the control of provincial administrations. The Act introduced the Inspector-General as the head of the provincial police force, and the superintendent oversaw the village police. It also established a clear command and control hierarchy within the police force.
• While the top ranks of the police force were primarily held by Europeans, Indians were predominantly recruited in lower ranks, although not exclusively. The Act emphasized improving village policing under the supervision of local magistrates. Efforts were made to enhance police salaries and bring them more in line with military services.
• In conclusion, the British government’s efforts to reform and utilize the police force in India had mixed results. The establishment of the Police Commission and the enactment of the 1861 Police Act aimed to reorganize and improve the effectiveness of the police. However, various factors, including the haste of implementation and limited Indian representation in higher ranks, affected the outcome. The political and administrative situation during this time was complex, and the impact of these reforms varied.

Development of Judiciary

• Hastings initiated the system, but Cornwallis made it workable.

Reforms To The Judiciary Under Warren Hastings

• To settle civil issues involving both Hindu and Muslim law, district-level Diwani Adalats were set up.
• The Sadar Diwani Adalat heard the appeal from the District Diwani Adalats.
• The Sadar Nizamat Adalat in Murshidabad, which oversaw the death penalty and the purchase of land, was run by a deputy Nizam (an Indian Muslim) with assistance from the senior mufti and chief qazi.
• A Supreme Court was established in Calcutta by the Regulating Act of 1773 with the power to hear cases involving all British subjects, including Indians and Europeans, who were present in Calcutta and its associated factories. It was a court with both original and appellate jurisdiction.

Changes Made By Cornwallis

• Cornwallis dissolved the District Fauzadari Court, and Circuit Courts were set up at Calcutta, Decca, Murshidabad, and Patna.
• European justices sit on its appeals court, which handles both civil and criminal issues.
• He transferred Sadar Nizamat Adalat to Calcutta, where it was overseen by the Governor-General and Supreme Council members, with the help of Chief Qazi and Chief Mufti.
• A district judge presided over the District, City, or Zila Court, which had been renamed from the District Diwani Adalat.

Alterations Made By William Bentinck

• The four Circuit Courts were dissolved under William Bentinck, and the duties of the former courts were given to collectors who were supervised by the commissioner of revenue and circuit.
• The Sadar Diwani Adalat and the Sadar Nizamat Adalat were founded in Allahabad.
• He established English as the official language for Supreme Court sessions, Persian, and vernacular language for lower court proceedings.
• Macaulay formed the Law Commission during his rule, which codified Indian laws.
• This commission served as the foundation for the creation of the Civil Procedure Code of 1859, the Indian Penal Code of 1860, and the Criminal Procedure Code of 1861.

Development of Civil Services

The development of civil services in India during the colonial period went through several stages and reforms. Here is an overview of the key milestones:

• Charter Act 1853: The Charter Act of 1853 ended the East India Company’s patronage system and introduced an open competition for future hiring. However, Indians were initially barred from holding prominent positions.
• Indian Civil Services Act 1861: Under the viceroyalty of Lord Canning, the Indian Civil Services Act was passed. While certain positions were reserved for covenanted civil servants, the examination was conducted in English and based on classical Greek and Latin knowledge. The age limit for eligibility gradually decreased over time.
• Statutory Civil Service: In 1878-1879, Lord Lytton introduced the Statutory Civil Service, allowing Indians of high families to fill one-sixth of covenanted jobs through local government nominations. However, this system was later repealed due to its ineffectiveness.
• Aitchison Commission 1886: The Aitchison Commission, headed by Sir Charles Aitchison, was established in 1886 to devise a strategy for including Indians in government service. It proposed abolishing the Statutory Civil Service and dividing the civil services into three groups: Imperial, Provincial, and Subordinate.
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms 1919: The Government of India Act on Constitutional Reforms of 1919 recommended three levels of service categorization: All India, Provincial, and Subordinate. All India Services provided special protections to employees in terms of dismissal, pay, pensions, and other rights. The Act also proposed the creation of a Public Service Commission to ensure impartial recruitment.
• Lee Commission 1924: The Lee Commission, established in 1923, examined the racial composition of the superior Indian public services. It recommended that 20% of recruits come from the provincial service, with 40% being British and 40% directly recruited Indians.
• Government of India Act 1935: The 1935 Act proposed the establishment of a Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service Commissions. However, positions of control and authority remained in British hands, and the Indianization of the civil service did not grant effective political power to Indians as they often acted as agents of colonial rule.
• Throughout this period, the civil services played a significant role in administering India’s newly acquired territories. However, the exclusionary practices and limited representation of Indians in higher positions remained a source of discontent and became a focus of subsequent reforms during the struggle for independence.

The emergence of the middle class in India during the 19th century was a transformative socio-economic and political phenomenon. It was intricately tied to colonial policies, economic shifts, and evolving social dynamics under British rule. This class played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual and ideological landscape of modern India and significantly contributed to the rise of Indian nationalism.

Factors Responsible for the Rise of the Middle Class in India

British Colonial Administration and Economic Policies
The British East India Company and later the Crown introduced administrative and economic changes that facilitated the emergence of a middle class. The colonial government required a layer of Indian intermediaries, clerks, lawyers, teachers, and administrators to manage its sprawling bureaucracy. These professions created opportunities for educated Indians to rise socially and economically.

The Permanent Settlement Act of 1793 and the introduction of modern industries, railways, and telegraph systems further restructured Indian society. While these measures primarily served colonial interests, they inadvertently fostered the growth of a new urban middle class composed of professionals, businessmen, and intellectuals.

Western Education and Social Reform
The British introduced Western-style education in India through institutions like the Hindu College in Kolkata (1817) and the establishment of universities in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras in 1857. This education system created a class of Indians familiar with Enlightenment ideals, liberal thought, and modern political philosophies such as liberty, equality, and self-determination.

Reform movements such as those led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotirao Phule also contributed to the rise of an educated middle class. These reformers sought to modernize Indian society by addressing issues like caste discrimination, widow remarriage, and women’s education. Their efforts created a consciousness among the educated elite, preparing them to lead social and political movements.

Urbanization and Industrialization
The expansion of urban centers such as Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras provided fertile ground for the growth of the middle class. These cities became hubs of trade, industry, and education, attracting people from various regions. The emergence of textile mills, printing presses, and other industries created new employment opportunities for the middle class.

Furthermore, urban areas provided access to newspapers, books, and political meetings, fostering an environment of intellectual exchange and debate. This exposure played a significant role in shaping the political consciousness of the middle class.

Indian Diaspora and Economic Aspirations
Many Indians who traveled abroad for work or education returned with broader worldviews. These experiences often motivated them to advocate for political rights and social reforms in India. Economic aspirations among the middle class also created a sense of identity that transcended regional and caste boundaries, fostering unity against colonial exploitation.

Contribution of the Middle Class to the Rise of Nationalism

The Indian middle class became the torchbearer of nationalist movements in the 19th century. Its contributions can be examined in the following ways:

Formation of Political Associations
The educated middle class was instrumental in forming the early political organizations that laid the groundwork for Indian nationalism. Associations such as the Indian Association (1876), Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870), and the Madras Mahajana Sabha (1884) were established by middle-class leaders to articulate Indian grievances and demands.

These organizations culminated in the formation of the Indian National Congress (1885), which became the principal platform for the nationalist struggle. Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale were prominent middle-class figures who advocated for greater Indian representation in governance and economic reforms.

Press and Literature
The middle class played a critical role in developing an Indian press, which became a powerful medium for spreading nationalist ideas. Newspapers like The Hindu, Kesari, and Amrita Bazar Patrika challenged colonial policies and fostered a sense of collective identity among Indians.

Middle-class intellectuals also contributed to nationalist literature, which celebrated India’s heritage and critiqued colonial exploitation. Writers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, with his novel Anandamath, and poets like Rabindranath Tagore, who composed songs of patriotism, inspired the masses to envision an independent India.

Social Reform Movements
The middle class was deeply involved in social reform movements, which were integral to the nationalist agenda. Reformers recognized that national unity required addressing internal social divisions, particularly those based on caste and gender. Organizations like the Arya Samaj and the Brahmo Samaj sought to revive Indian culture while promoting progressive values.

These reform movements created a foundation for a more cohesive society that could challenge British rule. For instance, campaigns for women’s education and abolition of untouchability helped bridge some of the divides within Indian society.

Mobilization of Public Opinion
Through public meetings, petitions, and rallies, the middle class effectively mobilized public opinion against colonial policies. Events such as the opposition to the Ilbert Bill (1883) and the protests against the Partition of Bengal (1905) showcased the organizational capabilities of the middle class.

The middle class also popularized the Swadeshi movement, which encouraged Indians to boycott British goods and promote indigenous industries. This movement demonstrated the economic potential of nationalist resistance and empowered Indian industries.

Development of Nationalist Ideology
The middle class was instrumental in articulating a coherent nationalist ideology that blended Western political ideas with Indian cultural traditions. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai emphasized the need for self-rule (Swaraj) while invoking India’s glorious past to inspire national pride.

Additionally, figures like Dadabhai Naoroji provided an economic critique of colonialism through his “Drain of Wealth” theory, which highlighted the exploitation of India’s resources by the British. Such ideas galvanized public support for the nationalist cause.

Conclusion

The rise of the middle class in India during the 19th century was a product of colonial economic and administrative changes, coupled with social reform and educational advancements. This class emerged as a vital force in the nationalist movement, leveraging its education, resources, and organizational skills to challenge British rule.

By forming political associations, mobilizing public opinion, fostering intellectual discourse, and addressing social issues, the middle class laid the foundation for a unified nationalist struggle. Its legacy is evident in the eventual success of the independence movement, where its early contributions provided the ideological and organizational backbone for subsequent generations of freedom fighters. In essence, the rise of the middle class not only redefined Indian society but also set the stage for the country’s liberation from colonial rule.

Introduction

• Beginning of Rule: The British East India Company was established as a trading company in 1600 and transformed into a ruling body in 1765.
• Interference in Internal Affairs: After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the East India Company got the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and gradually, it started interfering in Indian affairs.
• Exploitation of Power: The period from 1765-72 saw duality in the system of government where the Company had the authority but no responsibility and its Indian representatives had all the responsibility but no authority. This resulted in:
  • Rampant corruption among servants of the Company.
  • Excessive revenue collection and oppression of peasantry.
  • The Company’s bankruptcy, while the servants were flourishing.
• Response of British Government: To bring some order into the business, the British government decided to regulate the Company with a gradual increase in laws.

Acts Introduced by British Government

Regulating Act, 1773

• • Company Retains Possessions: This act permitted the company to retain its territorial possessions in India but sought to regulate the activities and functioning of the company.
  • Control over Indian Affairs: Through this act, for the first time, the British cabinet was given the right to exercise control over Indian affairs.
  • Introduction of Governor-General: It changed the post of Governor of Bengal to “Governor-General of Bengal”.
    • The administration in Bengal was to be carried out by the governor-general and a council consisting of 4 members.
    • Warren Hastings was made the first Governor-General of Bengal.
    • The Governor of Bombay and Madras now worked under the Governor-General of Bengal.
  • Establishment of Supreme Court: A Supreme Court of judicature was to be established in Bengal (Calcutta) along with appellate jurisdictions where all subjects could seek redressal.
    • It comprised one chief justice and three other judges.
    • In 1781, the Act was amended and the Governor-General, the Council and the servants of the government were exempted from the jurisdiction if they did anything while discharging their duties.

Pitt’s India Act, 1784

• • Dual Control System: It established the dual system of control by the British government and the East India Company.
    • The Company became a subordinate department of the State and its territories in India were termed ‘British possessions’.
    • However, it retained the control of commerce and day-to-day administration.
  • Court of Directors and Board of Control Established:
    • A Board of Control was formed to exercise control over the Company’s civil, military and revenue affairs. It consisted of:
      • The chancellor of exchequer
      • A secretary of state
      • Four members of the Privy Council (appointed by the Crown)
    • The important political matters were reserved to a secret committee of three directors (Court of Directors) in direct touch with the British government.
  • Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief: The council of governor-general was reduced to three members including the commander-in-chief.
    • In 1786, Lord Cornwallis was granted the power of both the governor-general and the commander-in-chief.
    • He was allowed to override the council’s decision if he owned the responsibility for the decision.

Charter Act, 1793

• • Extension of Powers to Governor-General: It extended the overriding power given to Lord Cornwallis over his council, to all future Governor-Generals and Governors of Presidencies.
  • Appointments of Senior Officials: The royal approval was mandated for the appointment of the governor-general, governors, and the commander-in-chief.
    • Senior officials of the Company were debarred from leaving India without permission—doing so was treated as resignation.
  • Payments of Officials: It laid down that the members of the Board of Control and their staff were to be paid out of the Indian revenues (it continued up till 1919).
    • The Company was also asked to pay 5 lakh pounds annually to the British government (after paying its necessary expenses).

Charter Act, 1813

• • Demand of English Traders: The English traders demanded a share in the Indian trade.
    • This demand was particularly in view of loss of trade due to the Continental System of Napoleon Bonaparte who sought to cripple England commercially.
  • End of Company’s Monopoly: By this, the Company was deprived of its commercial monopoly and ‘the undoubted sovereignty of the Crown’ over the possessions of the East India Company was laid down.
    • However, the company was allowed to enjoy the monopoly of trade with China and trade in tea.
  • Assistance to Learned Natives: A sum of Rs.1,00,000 annually was provided for the revival of literature, encouragement of learned Indian natives and promotion of scientific knowledge among the Indians.
    • This was the first step towards acceptance of the principle of State responsibility for education.

Charter Act, 1833

• • Company’s Trade Situation: The lease of 20 years provided to the Company (under Charter Act, 1813) for the possession of territories and the revenue collection was further extended.
    • However, the Company’s monopoly over trade with China and in tea ended.
  • European Immigration: All restrictions on European immigration and the acquisition of property in India were lifted which paved the way for the wholesale European colonisation of India.
  • Introduction of Governor-General of India: The post name of Governor-General of Bengal was converted into “Governor-General of India”.
    • He was given the power to superintend, control and direct all civil and military affairs of the Company.
      • All revenues were raised under his authority and he had complete control over the expenditure too.
    • William Bentinck became the first Governor-General of India.
  • Law Commission: It was established under this act for the consolidation and codification of Indian Laws.
    • It added a fourth ordinary Member to the Governor-General’s Council for India who was to be a legal expert in the making of laws.
    • Lord Macaulay was the first to be appointed as the fourth ordinary Member.

Charter Act, 1853

• • Company’s Trade Situation: The Company was to continue possession of territories unless the Parliament provided otherwise.
    • The Company’s patronage over the services was dissolved; the services were now thrown open to a competitive examination.
  • Fourth Ordinary Member: The law member became the full member of the governor-general’s executive council.
  • Indian Legislative Council: Local representation was introduced in the Indian legislature. This legislative wing came to be known as the Indian Legislative Council.
    • However, promulgation of a law required the assent of the governor-general who could veto any Bill of the legislative council.

Government of India Act, 1858

• • Outcomes of 1857 Revolt: The Revolt of 1857 had exposed the Company’s limitations in administering under a complex situation.
    • The revolt offered the opportunity as the demand for divesting the Company of its authority over the Company’s territory.
  • End of Company Rule: The dual system introduced by the Pitt’s India Act came to an end now India was to be governed by and in the name of the Crown through a secretary of state and a council of 15.
    • The council was just advisory in nature.
  • Introduction of Viceroy: The title of Governor-general of India was replaced with the Viceroy which increased the prestige of the title holder if not his authority.
    • The Viceroy was appointed directly by the British government.
    • The first Viceroy of India was Lord Canning.

• The early nineteenth century witnessed the emergence of Muslim Socio-Religious Reform Movements (SRRM) in India. These movements were influenced by various factors, including the impact of Western ideas, modern education, and the presence of Christian missionaries.
• One prominent figure in the SRRM was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, who hailed from Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan recognized the importance of education and advocated for modern education among Muslims. He believed that Muslims needed to adapt to the changing times and acquire Western knowledge to progress in the modern world. He established institutions like the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (later known as Aligarh Muslim University) in 1875, which aimed to provide modern education to Muslims while incorporating Islamic teachings.
• Another notable figure in the SRRM was Shariatullah, who hailed from Bengal. He emphasized the importance of purifying and strengthening Islam. Shariatullah believed in promoting Islamic learning and discouraging un-Islamic practices. He called for a return to the original teachings of Islam and advocated for reforms within the Muslim community.
• These reform movements were a response to the challenges faced by Muslims in the wake of British colonial rule, social changes, and the spread of Western ideas. The reformers sought to address issues such as social backwardness, lack of education, and religious practices that they considered deviated from the true essence of Islam.
• The Muslim Socio-Religious Reform Movements played a significant role in shaping the intellectual and social landscape of Indian Muslims. They laid the foundation for a more progressive and educated Muslim community, while also striving to maintain the Islamic identity. These reformers sought to reconcile traditional Islamic teachings with modern knowledge and engage in a dialogue with the broader society.
• Overall, the SRRM, led by figures like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Shariatullah, aimed to purify and strengthen Islam, promote Islamic learning, and adapt to the changing times by incorporating elements of Western education and ideas. Their efforts had a lasting impact on the Muslim community in India and contributed to its intellectual and social development.
• While Sayyid Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Iqbal were prominent figures in the Muslim socio-religious reform movements, it’s important to note that they were not directly associated with the Wahabi movement. The Wahabi movement was a separate movement with its distinct characteristics. Here is some information about these leaders and the Wahabi movement:

Sayyid Ahmad Khan

• Sayyid Ahmad Khan was a prominent Muslim reformer and one of the key figures in the socio-religious reform movements in India. He was a strong advocate for modern education and believed in the importance of reconciling Islamic teachings with modern knowledge and rationality. He founded the Aligarh Movement and established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (later known as Aligarh Muslim University) in 1875. Sayyid Ahmad Khan emphasized the need for Muslims to adapt to the changing times and engage with Western education and ideas to progress in the modern world.

Muhammad Iqbal

• Muhammad Iqbal was a renowned poet, philosopher, and political leader. While he played a significant role in shaping the philosophical and religious perspectives of the younger generation of Muslims and Hindus, his contributions were more focused on the intellectual and political aspects rather than directly leading a socio-religious reform movement. Iqbal’s poetry and writings explored themes of spirituality, Islamic revivalism, and the role of Muslims in the modern world. He is often considered one of the key intellectuals who laid the groundwork for the idea of an independent Muslim state, which eventually led to the creation of Pakistan.

Wahabi Movement

• The Wahabi Movement, also known as the Walliullah Movement, emerged as a response to Western influences and aimed to purify and reform Islam. It was inspired by the teachings of Shah Walliullah, an influential 18th-century Islamic scholar. The movement sought to return to the core principles of Islam as defined by the Quran and Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad). The Wahabis emphasized the rejection of innovations and practices they considered deviant from the original teachings of Islam. While the movement had a strong religious focus, it also had political aspirations, seeking to replace British rule with Islamic governance.
• It’s important to note that the socio-religious reform movements in India had diverse perspectives and objectives, and various leaders played significant roles in different movements. The contributions of these leaders and movements collectively aimed to address social, educational, and religious issues within the Muslim community and navigate the challenges of the changing times.
• The Ahmadiyya Movement, also known as the Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama’at, was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889. Here are some key points about the movement:

Founder and Purpose

• Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the Ahmadiyya Movement to revitalize Islam and defend it against the criticisms of other religious groups, such as the Arya Samaj and Christian missionaries. He emphasized the importance of spreading Western education among Indian Muslims to address the challenges they faced in the modern world.

Principles and Beliefs

• The Ahmadiyya Movement was founded on liberal principles and the idea of a universal religion for all humanity. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claimed to be the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, as well as an incarnation of various religious figures like Jesus and Krishna. These claims were controversial and drew both followers and critics.

Influence

• Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was influenced by various religious and philosophical movements, including Western liberalism, theosophy, and Hindu religious reform movements. These influences shaped his teachings and approach to religious reform.

Opposition to Jihad

• The Ahmadiyya Movement promoted the concept of human fraternity and opposed the concept of Jihad as a sacred war against non-Muslims. They advocated for peaceful means of promoting Islam and emphasized the importance of dialogue, education, and moral reform.

Educational Initiatives

• The Ahmadiyya Movement established a network of schools and colleges to promote Western liberal education among Indian Muslims. They believed that education was crucial for the progress and success of the Muslim community in the modern world.
• It’s worth mentioning that the Ahmadiyya Movement has faced criticism and has been considered controversial within the broader Islamic community due to differences in theological beliefs and its founder’s claims. The movement continues to exist and has followers around the world who adhere to its teachings and principles.

Aligarh Movement

• The Aligarh Movement was a socio-religious reform movement initiated by Sayyid Ahmad Khan in the late 19th century. Here are some key points about the movement:
• Establishment of the College:
  • In 1875, Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh. The college aimed to promote the spread of Western sciences and culture among the Muslim community in India. This college later evolved into Aligarh Muslim University, a prominent educational institution in India.
• Emphasis on Western Education:
  • The Aligarh Movement focused on the importance of Western education and the adoption of modern knowledge. Sayyid Ahmad Khan believed that Muslims needed to embrace modern education and sciences to overcome their socio-economic backwardness and keep pace with the changing world.
• Intellectual and Leadership Development:
  • The graduates of Aligarh Muslim University played a significant role in the intellectual and leadership development of the Muslim community. They became influential figures who contributed to modernizing and guiding the community through their knowledge and skills.
• Social Reforms:
  • Sayyid Ahmad Khan advocated for social reforms within the Muslim community. He encouraged Muslims to abandon medieval customs and traditions and adopt a more progressive outlook. He supported the elevation of women’s status in society, the abolition of purdah (seclusion of women), and the spread of education among women. He also spoke out against polygamy and divorce practices.
• Communal Harmony:
  • Sayyid Ahmad Khan promoted communal harmony and unity between Hindus and Muslims. He emphasized the shared cultural and geographical heritage of Indians, urging both communities to come together for the betterment of the nation. However, towards the end of his life, he expressed concerns about Hindu dominance to dissuade his followers from joining the rising nationalist movement.
  • The Aligarh Movement had a significant impact on the intellectual, educational, and social development of the Muslim community in India. It played a crucial role in promoting modern education, fostering leadership, and initiating social reforms among Indian Muslims.

Deoband Movement

• The Deoband Movement, also known as the Deobandi Movement, emerged in the late 19th century in Deoband, a town in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. Here are some key points about the movement:
• Orthodox Muslim Ulema: The Deoband Movement was led by the orthodox section of the Muslim ulema (religious scholars). They sought to uphold and propagate what they considered to be the pure teachings of Islam based on the Quran and Hadith (Prophet Muhammad’s traditions).
• Revivalist and Reformist: The Deoband Movement aimed to revive and reform Islam by emphasizing the importance of religious education, adherence to Islamic principles, and the propagation of orthodox teachings. It sought to counter what it perceived as the influence of Western ideas and practices.
• Focus on Quran and Hadith: One of the primary goals of the Deoband Movement was to promote the study and understanding of the Quran and Hadith among Muslims. It emphasized the importance of Islamic scriptures and their application in daily life.
• Spirit of Jihad: The Deoband Movement emphasized the importance of jihad, understood as striving in the path of Allah, both in personal spiritual development and in resisting foreign rule. It sought to keep the spirit of jihad alive among Muslims.
• Political and Intellectual Content: Under the leadership of Mahmud-ul-Hasan, the Deoband Movement developed a political and intellectual dimension. It began to address political issues and advocate for the rights and welfare of Muslims in the context of colonial rule. The movement played a role in the political awakening of its adherents.
• Conservative Interpretation: The Deoband Movement adhered to a conservative interpretation of Islam, emphasizing orthodoxy and traditional practices. It sought to counter what it perceived as religious innovations and deviations from the established Islamic principles.
• The Deoband Movement had a significant impact on the religious and intellectual landscape of Muslims in the Indian subcontinent. It established the influential Darul Uloom Deoband seminary, which continues to be a prominent center for Islamic education and theological training.

Barelvi Movement

• The Barelvi Movement, also known as the Ahle Sunnat movement, emerged as a response to the challenges posed by colonialism and reformist movements within Islam. Here are some key points about the movement:
• Leadership of Syed Ahmad Rai Barelvi: Syed Ahmad Rai Barelvi (1700-1850) is considered a prominent figure in the Barelvi Movement. He is often revered by his followers and regarded as a martyr and reviver of Islam in the Indian subcontinent.
• Early Influence of Sufi Orders: Initially, Syed Ahmad Rai Barelvi was inspired by Sufi orders such as Naqshbandi, Chishti, and Qadiri. Sufi orders emphasized spiritual practices and inner purification, including the concept of jihad al-nafs (struggle against one’s own base desires).
• Encounter with Wahhabi Influences: During his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1821, Syed Ahmad Rai Barelvi came into contact with Wahhabi patrons and teachings. This encounter had a significant impact on his religious beliefs and worldview.
• Embrace of Wahhabism and Puritanical Fundamentalism: After his encounter with Wahhabi influences, Syed Ahmad Rai Barelvi embraced Wahhabism and became a proponent of puritanical fundamentalism. He advocated for a strict adherence to Islamic law and emphasized physical jihad as a means of defending and propagating Islam.
• Advocacy for Islamic Puritanism: Throughout his life, Syed Ahmad Rai Barelvi actively promoted Islamic Puritanism, calling for the purification of Islamic practices and the establishment of strict religious norms. He sought to counter what he perceived as deviant practices within the Muslim community.
• Impact and Legacy: The Barelvi Movement had a significant influence on the religious landscape of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in areas with a large Sunni Muslim population. It sought to uphold traditional Sunni practices and customs, and its followers are known for their devotion to the Prophet Muhammad and the veneration of saints.
• It is important to note that the Barelvi Movement and its interpretation of Islam have been a subject of debate and criticism among different scholars and communities. Views on the movement may vary depending on one’s religious, historical, and ideological perspectives.

Important Consequences of Muslim Socio-Religious Reform Movements

• The Muslim Socio-Religious Reform Movements in the 19th century had several important consequences that impacted the Muslim community in India. Here are some key consequences:
• Promotion of Modern Education: One significant consequence of these reform movements was the emphasis on modern education. Leaders like Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Nawab Abdul Latif recognized the importance of Western education and established institutions to promote it among Muslims. This led to a gradual increase in the number of Muslims pursuing English education and gaining access to modern knowledge and ideas.
• Opposition to Social Abuses: The reform movements also aimed to address social abuses prevalent within the Muslim community. They sought to challenge practices such as the caste system and purdah (seclusion of women) and advocated for social reforms to improve the status of women and promote equality among Muslims.
• Participation in the Revolt of 1857: The active participation of some Muslims in the Revolt of 1857 against British rule led to a sense of dissatisfaction and mistrust from the British colonial authorities towards Muslims. This further highlighted the need for reforms and modernization within the Muslim community to align with changing times and circumstances.
• Hindu-Muslim Unity: Several reform leaders, including Nawab Abdul Latif, worked towards promoting Hindu-Muslim unity. They believed in fostering harmonious relations between the two communities and emphasized the common cultural heritage and shared interests of Hindus and Muslims. These efforts contributed to the strengthening of interfaith dialogue and cooperation.
• Intellectual Awakening and Leadership: The reform movements sparked an intellectual awakening among Muslims in India. They encouraged critical thinking, rationality, and a reinterpretation of religious texts in light of modern knowledge. This led to the emergence of Muslim leaders who played vital roles in shaping the socio-political landscape of India, such as Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Iqbal.
• Overall, the Muslim Socio-Religious Reform Movements had a profound impact on the Muslim community in India, promoting modern education, social reforms, interfaith harmony, and the rise of Muslim intellectuals and leaders. These consequences contributed to the changing dynamics of Indian society and its interaction with British colonial rule.

The Revolt of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, was a watershed moment in the history of British India. While it initially began as a mutiny by Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the service of the British East India Company, it rapidly grew into a widespread uprising against British rule. The causes of this revolt were multifaceted, encompassing political, social, economic, religious, and military grievances. To analyze its nature and determine whether it was truly the First War of Independence, it is essential to delve into its causes and the broader implications of the rebellion.

Political Causes

One of the most significant political factors was the aggressive policies of annexation pursued by Lord Dalhousie, particularly through the Doctrine of Lapse. According to this doctrine, if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would be annexed by the British. This policy led to the annexation of several princely states, including Jhansi, Satara, and Nagpur, creating widespread resentment among Indian rulers. Furthermore, the deposition of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh (Oudh) in 1856 on charges of misgovernance deeply hurt the sentiments of both the Indian aristocracy and the general population of the region, as Awadh was culturally and politically significant.

The displacement of traditional rulers and the interference in princely states disrupted the existing socio-political order. Many discontented rulers and their families, deprived of their privileges and incomes, saw the revolt as an opportunity to challenge British supremacy.

Economic Exploitation

The economic policies of the British had devastating effects on Indian society. The introduction of the Permanent Settlement in Bengal and similar revenue systems in other parts of India exploited the peasants and benefitted zamindars and British officials. High taxes and the frequent confiscation of lands impoverished the rural population. Traditional industries, such as handloom weaving, declined due to the influx of British-manufactured goods, leading to widespread unemployment among artisans.

The British also drained wealth from India through trade policies favoring Britain, known as the “Drain of Wealth.” This exploitation created widespread economic distress, fueling resentment against colonial rule. Many regions saw famine-like conditions due to declining agricultural productivity and exploitative taxation.

Social and Religious Grievances

The British administration displayed disregard for Indian social and religious practices, often offending deeply rooted cultural sensibilities. For example, the introduction of laws like the Widow Remarriage Act (1856) and debates around the abolition of sati were perceived by orthodox sections of Indian society as an attack on their traditions.

The spread of Christian missionary activities, often supported by colonial authorities, fueled fears of forced conversions. These anxieties were exacerbated by British officials’ insensitivity toward religious diversity, leading both Hindus and Muslims to feel their faiths were under threat. The perception that the British were intent on eroding Indian culture and religion played a significant role in uniting people from diverse backgrounds during the revolt.

Military Discontent

The revolt was triggered by discontent within the Bengal Army, composed mainly of Indian sepoys. Several factors contributed to their grievances. Indian soldiers were paid less than their British counterparts, treated poorly, and denied promotions or commissions. Moreover, the General Service Enlistment Act (1856), which mandated that sepoys serve overseas if required, was deeply unpopular. It violated traditional religious beliefs, particularly among high-caste Hindus who feared losing their caste by crossing the sea.

The immediate trigger for the revolt was the introduction of the Enfield rifle, which used cartridges rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat. This directly offended the religious sentiments of both Hindus and Muslims. When sepoys at Meerut refused to use these cartridges, they were severely punished, igniting widespread rebellion.

Nature of the Revolt: India’s First War of Independence?

There is significant debate among historians regarding the characterization of the Revolt of 1857. Some view it as merely a sepoy mutiny, while others regard it as India’s First War of Independence.

1. Arguments Supporting It as the First War of Independence

   • The revolt represented the first widespread challenge to British authority in India. It was not confined to sepoys but saw active participation from peasants, artisans, and dispossessed rulers.
   • Leaders like Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Sahib, and Bahadur Shah Zafar became symbols of resistance. The unity among Hindus and Muslims during the revolt indicated a collective struggle against a common oppressor.
   • Although uncoordinated and localized, the revolt sowed the seeds of national consciousness that later matured into the freedom movement.

2. Arguments Against the Characterization

   • The revolt lacked a unified ideology or a clear vision for India’s future. The participants were driven more by local grievances than a pan-Indian nationalist sentiment.
   • Many sections of society, such as the zamindars loyal to the British and sections of the Indian middle class benefiting from British rule, did not participate.
   • The rebellion was limited geographically, mainly affecting northern and central India, with little to no participation from southern and eastern regions.

Legacy of the Revolt

Although the revolt failed to achieve its immediate objectives, it marked a turning point in Indian history. The British Crown took direct control of India from the East India Company in 1858, introducing reforms to address some of the grievances. The revolt also served as a lesson for later nationalist movements, emphasizing the importance of unity and collective struggle.

Conclusion

The Revolt of 1857 was a complex event with deep-seated causes that went beyond a mere military mutiny. It was fueled by widespread discontent with British policies across political, economic, social, and military domains. Whether it qualifies as the First War of Independence depends on how one defines “independence.” While it may not have been a coordinated nationalist movement in the modern sense, it undoubtedly reflected the first large-scale rejection of British rule. For this reason, it holds a crucial place in India’s struggle for freedom, serving as an inspiration for future generations of freedom fighters.

• Nationalism in India during the colonial period was indeed a political and cultural movement that sought to promote a sense of national identity and pride among Indians. The economic, social, and political changes brought about by British colonial rule played a significant role in shaping the growth of nationalism.
• The British policies of economic exploitation, land reforms, and the imposition of heavy taxes on Indian goods had a profound impact on the Indian economy and society. These policies led to the disruption of traditional industries, the impoverishment of rural communities, and the displacement of many artisans and craftsmen.
• As a result, a new class of educated Indians emerged, comprising lawyers, professionals, intellectuals, and businessmen. This class became the vanguard of the nationalist movement and played a crucial role in articulating and advocating for nationalist ideas.
• Literature, art, and music became powerful tools for expressing nationalist sentiments. Indian writers, poets, and artists depicted the richness of Indian culture, celebrated its history and traditions, and critiqued the oppressive nature of colonial rule. The works of writers such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, and Sarojini Naidu inspired a sense of pride and nationalism among Indians.
• Furthermore, the growth of nationalism in India was closely tied to the political activities of organizations like the Indian National Congress (INC). The INC, founded in 1885, initially aimed to seek representation for Indians in the colonial administration. However, over time, it became the leading platform for nationalist aspirations and demands for self-rule.
• Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Mahatma Gandhi emerged as prominent figures within the nationalist movement. They advocated for political reforms, civil rights, and eventually, complete independence from British rule.
• The nationalist movement also witnessed various forms of protest and resistance against colonial rule. Boycotts of British goods, mass movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Quit India Movement, and acts of civil disobedience were employed to challenge British authority and assert Indian identity.
• In summary, the economic, social, and political changes brought about by British colonial rule in India led to the emergence of Indian nationalism. It was a response to the challenges and aspirations of the Indian people who sought to assert their identity, protect their culture, and achieve self-determination. The growth of nationalism during this period laid the foundation for India’s eventual independence in 1947.
• The growth of Indian nationalism is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has evolved over the course of several centuries. It is rooted in the aspirations of the Indian people for self-determination, cultural preservation, and political independence. Here are some key factors that have contributed to the growth of Indian nationalism:
  • Colonial Rule: The period of British colonial rule in India (1757-1947) played a significant role in shaping Indian nationalism. The oppressive policies, economic exploitation, cultural alienation, and political subjugation by the British ignited a sense of collective resistance among Indians. The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, became the main platform for nationalist activities.
  • Socio-Religious Reform Movements: The 19th century witnessed the rise of socio-religious reform movements in India, such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj. These movements aimed to challenge social evils, promote education and revive indigenous cultural practices. They also played a crucial role in fostering a sense of pride in Indian heritage and creating a foundation for nationalist sentiments.
  • Role of Intellectuals: Indian intellectuals and thinkers played a vital role in articulating and promoting nationalist ideas. Figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, and Rabindranath Tagore advocated for Indian cultural revival, self-reliance, and political freedom. Their writings and speeches inspired a sense of pride and unity among Indians.
  • Partition of Bengal (1905): The British decision to partition Bengal along religious lines in 1905 sparked widespread protests and nationalist fervour. This event led to mass mobilization, boycotts, and a resurgence of cultural and political consciousness among Indians. The Swadeshi movement, which called for the use of indigenous goods, and the promotion of national education emerged as a powerful tool of resistance.
  • Mahatma Gandhi and Nonviolent Resistance: Mahatma Gandhi emerged as the leader of the Indian National Congress in the early 20th century and became the face of the Indian nationalist movement. He advocated for nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience as a means to challenge British rule. His emphasis on self-reliance, grassroots mobilization, and inclusivity helped galvanize the masses and made the freedom struggle a mass movement.
  • Unity in Diversity: India’s incredible diversity, encompassing various languages, religions, and cultural practices, has also contributed to the growth of Indian nationalism. The idea of “unity in diversity” has been a central theme, emphasizing the need to forge a common identity that transcends regional, linguistic, and religious differences.
  • Impact of World War I and II: The participation of Indian soldiers in World War I and II on behalf of the British Empire had a profound impact on Indian nationalism. The disillusionment and sacrifices made by Indian soldiers, coupled with the contrast between the rhetoric of freedom and the reality of colonial rule, fueled nationalist sentiments and demands for independence.
  • Post-Independence Nation-Building: After India gained independence in 1947, the process of nation-building further strengthened Indian nationalism. Policies promoting secularism, democratic governance, and social justice were enshrined in the Indian Constitution. Efforts to bridge regional and linguistic divides, promote economic development, and protect cultural diversity have contributed to a continued sense of Indian nationalism.
• It is important to note that the growth of Indian nationalism is a complex and ongoing process, and it continues to evolve in response to various social, political, and economic factors.
• For over a century, the British exploited the Indian masses, breeding hatred and animosity toward them. The introduction of Western education opened the eyes of Indians to the British Raj’s colonial rule. Indian nationalism grew as a result of colonial policies and as a reaction to colonial policies. It would be more accurate to view Indian nationalism as the result of a confluence of factors. 

Factors

People United Politically Under the British Rule

• People became politically unified under British hegemony.
• There was one rule, one administrative framework, one set of laws, and one set of administrative officers that unified people politically.
• People became aware that vast India belonged to them, instilling a sense of nationalism in them. 

Communication and Transportation Advancements

• Lord Dalhousie made a lasting contribution to Indians by introducing railways, telegraphs, and a new postal system. Roads were built from one end of the country to the other.
• Even though all of this was intended to serve imperial interests, the people of India capitalized on it. The train compartment mirrored a united India.
• It bridged the gap between them and gave them the sense that they all belonged to this vast India under the control of the British Raj.

Influence of Western Education

• The introduction of English education in 1835 marked a watershed moment in the British administration.
• Its primary goal was to educate the Indian masses so that they would be loyal servants of the British Raj.
• However, as time passed, English-educated Indians became forerunners in India’s sociopolitical, economic, and religious reforms.
• Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Ferozeshah Mehta, Dadabhai Naoroji, and Surendranath Banerjee all fought for liberty, equality, and humanitarianism.
• English-educated Indians gradually became the torchbearers of Indian nationalism, instilling national consciousness in the minds of millions of Indians.

India’s glorious past

• Several avenues in the field of oriental studies were opened up by the nineteenth-century Indian Renaissance.
• Western scholars such as Max Muller, Sir William Jones, Alexander Cunningham, and others translated several ancient Sanskrit texts from this land, establishing the glorious cultural heritage of India before the people.
• Indian scholars such as R.D. Banerjee and R.G. Bhandarkar were inspired by them. Mahan Mukhopadhyaya, Hara Prasad Astir, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and others rediscovered India’s past glory from its history.
• This encouraged the people of India, who felt they were the ancestors of this country’s grand monarchs and were being ruled by foreigners. This fanned the flames of nationalism.

Movements for Socio-Religious Reform

• In the nineteenth century, the socio-religious reform movements led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Annie Besant, Syed Ahmad Khan, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, and Vivekananda brought about a national awakening in India.
• The abolition of Sati and the introduction of widow remarriage resulted in social reforms in India.
• Indians gained an understanding of the concepts of liberty, equality, freedom, and social disparities.
• This reawakened the people’s minds and instilled in them a sense of nationalism.

Growth of Vernacular Literature

• The influence of Western education compelled educated Indians to express the concepts of liberty, freedom, and nationalism through vernacular literature.
• They aimed to incite the masses to oppose British rule by instilling a sense of nationalism in them.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s Anand Math and Dinabandhu Metra’s play Nil Darpan wielded enormous power over the people and instilled anti-British feelings in them.
• The play Baraga Purdahs by Bharatendu Harishchandra reflected the plight of the Indian masses under British rule.
• Aside from several eminent poets and writers in various languages, such as Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali, Vishnu Shari Chipulunkar in Marathi, Laminate Bazbarua in Assamese, Mohammad Husain Azad and Altar Husain Ali in Urdu, their writings helped to rouse nationalism among the local people.

Role of Press

• Newspapers and magazines were critical in instilling a sense of nationalism in Indians.
• Raja Rammohan Roy edited Persian journals such as ‘Mirat-ul-Akhbar’ and the Bengali newspaper ‘Sambad Kaimiudi.’
• Similarly, several newspapers, such as Hindu Patriot, Bangalee, Amrit bazar patrika, Sudharani, and Sanjivani in Bengali; Indu Prakash in Maharashtra, Native Opinion, Kesari, Koh-i-Noor, Akhbar-i-Am and ‘The Tribune’ in Punjab, reflected British rule and aroused feelings of nationalism among people.

The First War of Independence’s Memory

• The memory of the Revolt of 1857 instilled in the Indians a sense of nationalism.
• After becoming aware of the British’s bad intentions, the heroic roles of Rani Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb, Tayta Tope, and other leaders became fresh in the minds of the people.
• This instilled in the people a desire to fight the British.

The Ilbert Bill Controversy

• The Ilbert Bill was passed during Lord Ripon’s tenure as Viceroy. It gave Indian judges the authority to try the Europeans.
• It sparked outrage among Europeans, who pushed for a change in the bill, including a provision requiring an Indian to try a European in the presence of a European witness.
• This exposed the British authorities’ deception and projected their racial animosity.

Antagonism Between Races

• The British considered themselves superior to Indians and never offered them good jobs regardless of their merits or intelligence.
• The Indian Civil Service examination was held in England, and the age limit was 21.
• Aurobindo Ghosh passed the written exam but was disqualified from horseback riding and did not pass the ICS exams. The British purposefully disqualified them.
• They believed that Indians were brown and unfit to rule and that it was the white men’s responsibility to rule them. This inflamed people’s resentment of British rule.

Economic Exploitation

• Britishers economically exploited India by draining wealth from India to Britain, as expressed in Dada Bhai Naoroji’s ‘Drain Theory.’
• Following the Industrial Revolution in England, the British needed raw materials and markets, which were met by draining the raw materials of India and using Indian markets.
• The landlords, guided by Britishers, exploited the Indian masses and further exploited the Indian economy.
• The ‘Drain Theory’ of Dadabhai Naoroji, Ranade, and G.V. Joshi raised awareness about the exploitation of Indian handicrafts, which mirrored the exploitative nature of Britishers toward the Indian economy.
• This ruined India’s factories, handicrafts, and economy, leaving the Indian people impoverished and filled with resentment toward the British.

Formation of the Indian National Congress

• The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. It expressed the Indian people’s desire in front of the British.
• The mass movements and leaders played an important role in the development of people’s national consciousness.
• The Indian National Congress enabled the Indians to wage ideological battles against the British, resulting in India’s independence.
• Moderates such as Dada Bhai Naoroji and S.N. Banerjee, as well as extremists such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, all played important roles in instilling a sense of nationalism in Indians.

Bengal’s Partition (1905)

• Lord Curzon, the British viceroy, was in charge of partitioning Bengal in 1905.
• Since 1765, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa had been united as a single province of British India.
• By 1900, the province had grown too large for a single administration to handle. East Bengal had been overlooked in favor of West Bengal and Bihar due to its isolation and poor communication.
• Partition was opposed by the Hindus of West Bengal, who controlled the majority of Bengal’s commerce, professional, and rural life. They saw the partition as an attempt to suffocate nationalism in Bengal, where it was stronger than elsewhere.
• The Indian National Congress was transformed from a middle-class pressure group into a nationwide mass movement as a result of this.

Bengal’s Swadeshi Movement

• The Swadeshi Movement arose from Bengal’s anti-partition movement.
• The decision escalated the protest meeting, resulting in the passage of a Boycott resolution in a massive meeting held in Calcutta Town Hall, as well as the formal proclamation of the Swadeshi Movement.
• The extremists dominated the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal. They proposed new forms of struggle. The movement primarily advocated a boycott of foreign goods, as well as mass mobilization through public meetings and processions.
• Self-sufficiency, or ‘Atma Shakti,’ as well as Swadeshi education and enterprise, were emphasized.
• Several families remained active to ensure mass participation, and songs written by Rabindranath Tagore, Rajanikanta Sen, Dwijendralal Ray, Mukunda Das, and others inspired the masses in the cultural sphere.
• Soon after, the movement spread to other parts of the country, with Tilak leading in Pune and Bombay, Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh leading in Punjab, Syed Haider Raza leading in Delhi, and Chidambaram Pillai leading in Madras.

Political Associations in the Bengal Presidency

Landholders Society

• Before the establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885, several political associations in India played significant roles in advocating for various reforms and expressing the aspirations of the Indian people. These associations were primarily regional or local in their operations and had specific agendas related to their respective regions. Some of these early political organizations include:
• The Zamindari Association, also known as the Landholders’ Society, was established in 1838 to protect the interests of landlords in Bengal. It was founded by prominent intellectuals such as Bhabani Charan Bandyopadhyay, Dwarkanath Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Radhakanta Deb, and Ramkamal Sen. The association advocated for the implementation of Permanent Settlement across India, which was a land revenue system introduced by the British.
• The Zamindari Association formed close ties with the British India Society in London and managed to secure concessions from the British, such as tax exemptions for temples and lands belonging to Brahmans. It also allowed British citizens in India to become members of the association. The organization aimed to reform the police, judiciary, and revenue departments.
• However, the influence of the Zamindari Association remained primarily limited to Bengal. Its program of Permanent Settlement did not extend to other Indian states, and as a result, its reach and impact were confined to a specific region. Additionally, the association faced a decline in influence after 1842 and eventually closed down in 1850. It merged with the Bengal British India Society to form the British India Association.
• It is important to note that the Zamindari Association focused primarily on the interests of landlords and did not address the issues faced by ordinary people. Its activities were centered on institutional politics and the use of constitutional means for political struggle. While it marked the beginning of organized political activity in India, its scope was limited, and it did not acquire a pan-India character.

Bengal British India Society

• The Bengal British India Society was established in 1843 with the objective of gathering and sharing information about the conditions of the people in British India. It aimed to promote the welfare, rights, and interests of all classes of subjects in India through peaceful and lawful means.
• In 1851, the Landholders’ Society and the Bengal British India Society merged to form the British Indian Association. This merger brought together the interests of landlords and the broader objective of advancing the welfare and rights of the people in British India. The formation of the British Indian Association marked a significant development in the organized political struggle in India during that time.
• The British Indian Association played a crucial role in advocating for the interests of Indians and pushing for reforms. It became one of the predecessors to the Indian National Congress (INC), which was established in 1885. The formation of the British Indian Association laid the foundation for collective political action and paved the way for further organized movements for Indian independence.
• The Bengal British India Society was founded in 1843 by the combined efforts of George Thompson, Dwarkanath Tagore, Chandra Mohan Chatterjee, and Parmananda Maitra.
• It was founded on the advice of George Thompson. He was brought to India from England by Dwarkanath Tagore.
• George Thomas was the Secretary of the British Indian Society.
• It primarily represented the aristocratic class.
• The organization’s main goals were to collect and disseminate information about people’s health and well-being.
• The society, founded in 1843, aimed to ensure the welfare and advancement of all classes while remaining loyal to the British sovereign. It emerged as the second politically inclined public association in British India, following the Zamindari association.
• Unlike the Zamindari Association, which focused solely on the interests of the landed aristocracy, the Bengal British India Society was dominated by Bengal intellectuals, particularly the young Bengal group. These intellectuals, influenced by their Western education and awareness, sought to collect and disseminate information about the conditions of the people of British India.
• The objectives of the Bengal British India Society included advancing the interests of all classes, promoting good citizenship qualities among Indians, urging the government to increase Indian employment in public offices and implement judicial reforms, raising public awareness about governance issues, and working towards the realization of their just rights through peaceful and lawful means while remaining loyal to the British sovereign.
• However, despite its pioneering role in the development of political parties in India, the Bengal British India Society, along with the Zamindari Association, became dormant by 1850 and was unable to achieve significant outcomes.
• Overall, the Bengal British India Society and the Zamindari Association laid the groundwork for organized political movements in India, but their impact was limited in the early stages of the struggle against British imperialism.

British India Association (1851)

• The British India Association formed in 1851 through the merger of the Landholders’ Society and the Bengal British India Society, played a significant role in Indian political activism during that time. The organization was headed by Raja Radhakant Dev as President and Debendranath Tagore as Secretary, and it had several other prominent members.
• The formation of the British India Association was prompted by the opposition of the European community in Bengal to the four bills drafted by Bethune, a law member of the British Government, in 1849. These bills aimed to extend the jurisdiction of the East India Company’s criminal courts over British-born subjects. While the Indian community supported these bills, the European community protested against them, leading to their withdrawal by the government. This incident highlighted the need for a strong political organization to protect Indian interests against organized attacks by Europeans.
• The objectives of the British India Association included petitioning the British Parliament to incorporate their suggestions in the Company’s renewed Charter, advocating for the establishment of a popular legislature, separation of executive and judicial functions, salary reductions for higher officers, and the abolition of the salt duty, abkari, and stamp duties.
• The British India Association was one of the first political associations to bring Indians together. It propagated its ideology through the newspaper “Hindu Patriot,” which had a critical political tone. The association sent a petition to Parliament in 1852, raising grievances and seeking relief, which led to the addition of six members to the governor-general’s council for legislative purposes in the Charter Act of 1853. It worked towards structural changes in local administration and government systems, striving for the greater welfare of Indians.
• However, the British India Association had limitations. It primarily represented the interests of landlords and the upper class, with membership restricted to the wealthy. It focused more on measures that affected their class interests, and its high annual subscription rate drew public criticism. Over time, it became associated with the landed aristocracy and failed to represent the broader political aspirations of the Indian people. There were allegations that the association supported British rule to protect its own interests, as seen in their petition urging the implementation of permanent settlements throughout India.
• The British India Association mainly relied on petitioning authorities and holding occasional public meetings to reinforce its demands. It struggled to meet the aspirations of the growing middle class in Bengal and had limited engagement with the Muslim community, which consisted largely of peasants and had little interest in the association’s activities.
• Overall, the British India Association played a significant role in Indian political activism during its existence, but its limitations and focus on certain class interests hindered its ability to become a popular representative organization and fulfill the broader aspirations of the Indian people.

Indian League (1875)

• The Indian League, founded in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh, played an important role in stimulating nationalism among the people of India and promoting political education. Sisir Kumar Ghosh himself was a prominent Indian journalist, the founder of the Amrita Bazar Patrika newspaper, and a Bengali freedom fighter.
• The Indian League aimed to instill a sense of nationalism among the people and had notable nationalist leaders associated with it, including Ananda Mohan Bose, Durgamohan Das, Nabagopal Mitra, and Surendranath Banerjee.
• Sisir Kumar Ghosh’s Amrita Bazar Patrika, established in 1868, became a powerful medium for expressing national opinions and highlighting the misrule of the British. Ghosh was known for his writings on Lord Chaitanya, a Vaishnavite mystic-saint, and he published “Lord Gauranga or Salvation for All” in 1897. He was also one of the first students to pass Calcutta University’s first entrance examination in 1857.
• The Indian League emerged at a time when the Indian National Movement was gaining broader support and receiving publicity through the press. Ghosh and his progressive colleagues founded the Indian League to represent not only the middle class but also the masses, aiming to stimulate a sense of nationalism among the people.
• In conclusion, the Indian League, founded by Sisir Kumar Ghosh in 1875, played a significant role in promoting nationalism and political education in India. While it was not the first political organization, it contributed to the broader Indian National Movement and laid the foundation for subsequent organizations like the Indian National Association, founded by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose in 1876.

Indian National Association (1876)

• The Indian National Association, also known as the Indian Association of Calcutta, was established in 1876 as one of the earliest nationalist organizations in India. It was founded by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose, initially under the name Bharat Sabha. The association played a significant role in the political awakening and mobilization of Indians toward the goal of independence.
• The Indian National Association aimed to promote various legitimate means for the advancement of the Indian people, including political, intellectual, and material aspects. It sought to build a strong public opinion on political issues and unite Indians behind a common political agenda. The organization attracted various nationalist leaders, including Anand Mohan Bose, Durga Mohan Das, Nabagopal Mitra, and Surendranath Banerjee.
• The association emerged during a period of growing political consciousness and the rise of political associations and national movements for independence in India. Before the Indian National Association, the India League was founded in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Sambhu Charan Mukherjee, aiming to represent the middle class and foster a sense of nationalism. However, the India League eventually disbanded, leading to the formation of the Indian Association by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose.
• The Indian National Association had several distinctive features. It represented the interests of the middle class and worked to promote a sense of nationalism among the people. The organization emphasized political unity among the educated middle class and aimed to create a strong body of public opinion in the country. It also advocated for the unity of Indian races and peoples based on common political interests and aspirations. The association promoted brotherhood between Hindus and Muslims and made efforts to include the masses in the political movement.
• The Indian National Association campaigned on various issues, including the removal of the age limit for candidates in the Indian Civil Service examination, the Indianization of higher administrative positions, and the repeal of repressive acts such as the Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act. It established branches in different towns and cities across Bengal and beyond, and its membership fee was kept low to attract members from the poorer sections of society.
• In 1886, the Indian National Association merged with the Indian National Congress, another prominent nationalist organization. The association played a crucial role in laying the foundation for the Indian National Congress and its subsequent activities in the Indian independence movement.

Indian Councils Act of 1892 was passed with the objective of increasing the size of legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India. Following the foundation of the Indian National Congress, the Indian Councils Act of 1892 represents a significant milestone in India’s constitutional and political history.

Historical Background

• Following the Great Revolt of 1857, British realised that it needed to ensure the help of its Indian subjects in administering India.
• In addition, as nationalism grew in popularity, Indians became more cognizant of their rights.
• Following the founding of the Indian National Congress, the Indian Councils Act of 1892 represents a significant milestone in India’s constitutional and political history.
• After the Act of 1861, the growth of the Indian Constitution is essentially a story of political discontent and agitation interspersed with Council Reforms.
• The reforms that were reluctantly accepted were always found to be insufficient, resulting in dissatisfaction and a demand for more reforms.
• During the 1885-1889,as a result of the growing nationalism, the Indiana National Congress raised several demands through its sessions.

The following were the main demands:

• An ICS test was to be held simultaneously in England and India.
• Expansion of the Legislative Councils, including the adoption of the election-in-place-of-nomination basis.
• Opposition to Upper Burma’s annexation.
• Military spending should be reduced
• Ability to have previously forbidden financial chats.

Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy at the time, convened a commission to investigate the situation. On the other side, the Secretary of State opposed the idea of a direct election. However, he agreed to indirect electoral representation.

Objective

Increase in the size of various legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India.

Key Provisions

• It raised the number of (non-official) members in the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils while keeping the official majority.
  • Bombay – 8
  • Madras – 20
  • Bengal – 20
  • North Western Province -15
  • Oudh – 15
  • Central Legislative Council minimum – 10, maximum 16
• The Act made it clear that the members appointed to the council were not there as representatives of any Indian body, but as nominees of the Governor-General.
• Members could now debate the budget without voting right. They were also barred from asking follow-up questions.
• The elected members were permitted to discuss official and internal matters.
• The Governor General in Council was given the authority to set rules for member nomination, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State for India.
• To elect members of the councils, an indirect election system was implemented.
• Members of provincial councils could be recommended by universities, district boards, municipalities, zamindars, and chambers of commerce.
• Provincial legislative councils were given more powers, including the ability to propose new laws or repeal old ones with the Governor General’s assent.

Significance

• It was the first step toward a representative system of government in contemporary India.
• The number of Indians increased, which was a good thing.
• Despite the fact that Indians did not have the power to veto the majority, their opinions were heard.
• The principle of election, which was accepted in 1892, allowed non-officials to have a free and open discussion on the government’s financial strategy. As a result, the administration had an opportunity to clear up misconceptions and respond to criticism.
• The statute gave members of the council the authority to issue interpellations on subjects of public concern.

Defects

• Despite being the first step toward a representative government in modern India, this act provided no benefits to the common man.
• This act created the stage for the development of numerous revolutionary forces in India because the British only made a minor concession.
• Many leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, faulted Congress’s moderate strategy of petitions and persuasions for the lack of significant progress and called for a more assertive policy against British rule.

Conclusion

The Indian Councils Act, 1892 is a significant milestone in India’s constitutional and political history. The act increased the size of various legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India. The Indian Councils Act, 1892 was the first step towards the representative government in modern India. The act created the stage for the development of revolutionary forces in India because the British only made a minor concession.